Hungarians investigate a disabled Soviet tank in Budapest

The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, also known as the Hungarian Uprising or simply the Hungarian Revolt, was an anti-Soviet revolt in Hungary lasting from 23 October to 4 November 1956. The revolt was suppressed by Soviet troops, and to a much smaller degree the Hungarian ÁVH (Államvédelmi Hatóság, 'State Protection Authority'). Anywhere from 25,000 to 50,000 Hungarian rebels and 7,000 Soviet troops were killed, thousands more were wounded, and nearly a quarter of a million left the country as refugees. The revolution led to a significant drop in support for Marxist-Leninist ideas in Western countries. Hungarians attack a Soviet tank during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. ... Nickname: Pearl or Queen of the Danube Motto: {{{motto}}} Official website: www. ... This article is about revolution in the sense of a drastic change. ... October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... November 4 is the 308th day of the year (309th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 57 days remaining. ... 1956 (MCMLVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Soviet redirects here. ... Államvédelmi Hatóság or ÁVH (State Protection Authority) was the secret police force of Hungary from some time in 1944 or 1945 until 1956. ... Vladimir Lenin in 1920 Leninism is a political and economic theory which builds upon Marxism; it is a branch of Marxism (and it has been the dominant branch of Marxism in the world since the 1920s). ... For alternative meanings for The West in the United States, see the U.S. West and American West. ...

Overview

On 23 October 1956 hundreds of thousands of Hungarians rose up against the government. Within days, millions of Hungarians were participating in or supporting the revolt. The revolt achieved control over a large number of social institutions and a large amount of territory. The participants began to implement their own policies. Executions of pro-Soviet communists, and ÁVH members started, especially by ultra-nationalist groups like József Dudás'. The Hungarian Communist Party made Imre Nagy Prime Minister. After negotiating a ceasefire with Soviet forces in Hungary, Nagy declared his intention to withdraw Hungary from the Warsaw Pact. October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... 1956 (MCMLVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... József Dudás, (September 22, 1912 - January 19, 1957), was born in Marosvásárhely, Romania; a Hungarian anti-government activist during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. ... Imre Nagy (born in Kaposvár, Hungary June 7, 1896, executed June 16, 1958) was Prime Minister of Hungary on two occasions. ... Sir Robert Walpole, the first Prime Minister A prime minister may be either: chief or leading member of the cabinet of the top-level government in a country having a parliamentary system of government; or the official, in countries with a semi-presidential system of government, appointed to manage the... Seal of the Warsaw Pact Distinguish from the Warsaw Convention, which is an agreement among airlines about financial liability. ...

Soviet troops entered Hungary on two occasions, both times to firm up pro-Warsaw Pact governments – the Gerő government that collapsed on 23 October, and the Kádár government formed on 3 November – that nominally invited them. On the night of 23 October and subsequent days the Hungarian ÁVH shot protestors. In comparison, Soviet troops generally attempted to keep order. Armed resistance by insurgents, and the collapse of the Hungarian Communist party, caused a ceasefire between Soviet troops and insurgents by 1 November 1956. On the night of 4 November 1956 the Soviet army intervened, launching an artillery and airstrike assisted multi-divisional offensive against Budapest. To a minuscule extent this Soviet intervention was assisted by the ÁVH, reorganised by the Kádár government as a militia. By January 1957 Kádár had brought the instability to an end. Due to the rapid change in government and social policies, and the use of armed force to achieve political goals, this uprising is often considered a revolution. October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 58 days remaining. ... October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... November 1 is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 60 days remaining. ... November 4 is the 308th day of the year (309th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 57 days remaining. ... 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... It has been suggested that Revolutionary be merged into this article or section. ...

Historical debate

The historical and political significance of the Hungarian revolution of 1956 is still actively debated. The main views on the nature of the revolution are: History studies the past in human terms. ...

• That it was a libertarian socialist and anarchist revolution aiming to create a new kind of society modelled on the Hungarian workers councils. This view is popular amongst libertarian communists, council communists and anarchists.

• That it was a socialist and democratic revolution aiming to create a more open socialist society like Yugoslavia, or a social democratic society like Sweden, or perhaps a new and different kind of socialist system. This view was popular among reformist communists and is popular among democratic socialists, Trotskyists and others.

• That it was a spontaneous, democratic revolution with the intention of establishing political self determination and independence from the Warsaw Pact. This view is popular in Hungary and in the USA.

• That it was a clerical and fascist attempt to restore a Horthyite or Arrow Cross government and a semi-feudal capitalist economy. This view was popular with Soviet Union and Chinese aligned communist parties, and is present in many primary sources discussing the revolution, for example, in the Hungarian Government's White Book series (November 1956–1959). However, it has little credibility amongst professional historians in the West, primarily due to the fact that all accounts on the 1956 events were subject to censorship in Hungary continuously until the year 1989.

Due to the variety of conflicting and irreconcilable historiographical positions on the Hungarian revolution of 1956, it is difficult to produce a summary account of revolutionary events. Similarly, because the revolution was short lived, it is nearly impossible to speculate on what its effects might have been, if successful. Libertarian socialism is any one of a group of political philosophies dedicated to opposing coercive forms of authority and social hierarchy, in particular the institutions of capitalism and the state. ... Anarchism derives from the Greek αναρχία (without archons (rulers)). Thus anarchism, in its most general meaning, is the belief that rulers, hierarchal organization, and systems of coersion are unnecessary and should be abolished. ... A workers council is a council, or deliberative body, composed of working class or proletarian members. ... Anarcho-Communism, or Libertarian Communism, is a political ideology related to Libertarian socialism. ... Council communism was a radical Left movement originating in Germany and the Netherlands in the 1920s. ... Anarchism derives from the Greek αναρχία (without archons (rulers)). Thus anarchism, in its most general meaning, is the belief that rulers, hierarchal organization, and systems of coersion are unnecessary and should be abolished. ... Socialism is an ideology with the core belief that society should exist in which popular collectives control the means of power, and therefore the means of production. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... The color red and particularly the red flag are traditional symbols of Socialism. ... Official language none (1963–1974: Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Croato-Serbian, Slovenian) Capital Belgrade Largest city Belgrade Area (1991)  - Total  - % water Ranked xxst 255,804 km² Negligible Population  - Total (2004)  - Density Ranked xxth 20,522,972 80/km² Currency Yugoslav dinar Time zone  - in summer CET (UTC+1) CEST (UTC+2... Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. ... Democratic socialism is a broad political movement propagating the ideals of socialism within the context of a democratic system. ... Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. ... Self-determination is a theoretical principle now embodied in international law that a people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structures. ... Seal of the Warsaw Pact Distinguish from the Warsaw Convention, which is an agreement among airlines about financial liability. ... The Roman Catholic Church believes its founding was based on Jesus appointment of Saint Peter as the primary church leader, later Bishop of Rome. ... Fascism (in Italian, fascismo), capitalized, was the authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... Miklós Horthy in 1921 Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya, Duke of Szeged and Otranto (Hungarian: Vitéz Nagybányai Horthy Miklós; Kenderes, June 18, 1868 – Estoril, February 9, 1957) was a Hungarian Admiral and statesman and served as the Regent of Hungary from March 1, 1920 until... Flag of the Arrow Cross Party The Arrow Cross (Nyilaskereszt) originated in Hungary in the 1930s as the symbol of the leading Hungarian fascist political party, the Arrow Cross Party, led by Ferenc Szálasi, an ex-army major. ... Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ... The examples and perspective in this article do not represent a worldwide view. ... Historiography is the study of the way history is and has been written. ...

What happened

Prelude

Following World War II, the borders were almost identically restored to those of 1920. Hungary became part of the Soviet area of influence, and after a brief period of multiparty democracy, it transformed into a communist state by 1949, under the dictatorship of Mátyás Rákosi and the Hungarian Communist Party. A multi-party system is a type of party system. ... A Communist state is a term for a state governed by a single political party which declares its allegiance to the principles of Marxism-Leninism. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) is a common year starting on Saturday. ... Portrait of Mátyás Rákosi Mátyás Rákosi (March 14, 1892–February 5, 1971) was a Hungarian politician and the leader of Hungary from 1945 to 1956. ... The Hungarian Communist Party (in Hungarian: Magyar Kommunista Párt or Kommunisták Magyarországi Pártja) was founded on November 24, 1918, and was in power in Hungary briefly from 1918 to 1919 under Bela Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic. ...

On March 5, 1953, Josef Stalin died, leaving a power vacuum at the top of the Soviet Union and ushering in a brief period of destalinization - in which some anti-Stalin sentiment was tolerated. Most European communist parties began to develop a reformist wing. Joseph Stalin Iosif (Joseph) Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин), original name Ioseb Jughashvili (Georgian: იოსებ ჯუღაშვილი; see Other names section) (December 21, 18791 – March 5, 1953) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and a political leader in the Soviet Union. ... De-Stalinization and the Khrushchev era For further details, see Nikita Khrushchev After Stalin had died in March 1953, he was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and Georgi Malenkov as Premier of the Soviet Union. ...

On June 17, 1953, workers in East Berlin staged an uprising, demanding the resignation of the East German Communist government. This was quickly and violently put down with the help of the Soviet military. The death toll lies between 125 and 270. [1] East Berlin was the name given to the eastern part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990. ... The correct title of this article is sed. ...

On July 18, 1956, Mátyás Rákosi - "Stalin's Best Hungarian Disciple" - was forced to resign as General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party, and was replaced by Ernő Gerő. ErnÅ‘ GerÅ‘ (1898 - 1980) was a Hungarian Communist leader in the period after World War II and briefly leader of Hungary in 1956. ...

In October 1956, the Polish reformist Władysław Gomułka was rehabilitated and elected as head of the Polish Communist Party. Gomułka's reinstatement inspired hope across Eastern Europe for greater reforms and increased autonomy. WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw GomuÅ‚ka on the cover of Time Magazine WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw GomuÅ‚ka (February 6, 1905, Krosno – September 1, 1982) was a Polish Communist leader. ... This article is about the 1918-1938 Communist Party of Poland. ... Autonomy is the condition of something that does not depend on anything else. ...

23 October to 3 November

On the evening of 23 October 1956, students from the Technical University gathered in Budapest's Bem Square to stage a small pro-Gomułka solidarity demonstration. This small rally quickly attracted others as the mood changed from demonstration to protest. Many Hungarian soldiers on duty in the city joined the protesters, tearing the Soviet stars off their hats and throwing them into the crowd. Emboldened, this growing crowd decided to cross the Danube and move toward the Parliament building. At its peak, the crowd numbered at least 100,000 and had no clear leader. At this point, the demonstration was spirited, but peaceful. October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 58 days remaining. ... October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... 1956 (MCMLVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Danube (Donau in German; Dunaj in Slovak; Duna in Hungarian; Dunav in Croatian; Дунав/Dunav in Serbian; Дунав in Bulgarian; Dunăre in Romanian; Дунай (Dunay) in Ukrainian; Danuvius in Latin) is Europes second-longest river (after the Volga). ...

The demands of the demonstrators were at first relatively mild. The turning point was when Hungarian Security Police (ÁVH) opened fire on the crowds and killed hundreds. Pretenses of moderation were dropped, police cars were flipped over and set on fire, and guns were distributed among the masses by arms factory and arsenal workers. Hungarian Security Police (ÁVH) headquarters was beseiged by the crowd. As the authorities tried to sneak in arms and supplies to the besieged ÁVH using an ambulance with lights and siren, the crowd intercepted it and liberated the weapons and ammunition within. Államvédelmi Hatóság or ÁVH (State Protection Authority) was the secret police force of Hungary from some time in 1944 or 1945 until 1956. ...

Soon after, the popular politician Imre Nagy was installed as Prime Minister by the Hungarian communist party. Many of his previous supporters now denounced him as a traitor, mistakenly thinking that he, not the hardline Party Secretary Ernő Gerő and the former Prime Minister András Hegedűs, had declared a state of emergency and ordered Soviet troops into action. Nagy may have made the call for Soviet assistance, but on the night of the 23rd when he was installed as Prime Minister he was under Party arrest and under duress from a Gerő-line cabinet. Imre Nagy (born in Kaposvár, Hungary June 7, 1896, executed June 16, 1958) was Prime Minister of Hungary on two occasions. ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... András Hegedűs (1922-1999) was a Hungarian Communist politician who served as Prime Minister of Hungary from 1955 to 1956. ...

Intervention

Soviet troops had been stationed in Hungary since 1944, firstly as an invading army, then as part of the Allied occupation forces, subsequently, following a brief period without legal justification, at the invitation of the Hungarian government, and finally as part of their responsibilities as a Warsaw Pact signatory.

On 23 October, the Soviet Union activated contingency plans which had existed since early October 1956 for a police action intervention into Hungary's internal situation. The Presidium of the Soviet Party had been concerned with the internal situation in Hungary from April, when they heard of Rákosi's plans to eliminate a large number of intellectuals. Their concerns grew over autumn, as Gerő lost control of his party. The Presidium of the Soviet Party believed that the Hungarian Party's request for invitation indicated that Nagy held the confidence of the Party, and that the Hungarian Party still held the confidence of the Hungarian public. October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... Portrait of Mátyás Rákosi Mátyás Rákosi (March 14, 1892–February 5, 1971) was a Hungarian politician and the leader of Hungary from 1945 to 1956. ...

The intervention of 23 October began using forces stationed in Hungary since 1945. Soviet soldiers had become accustomed to a Hungarian way of life. The Soviet soldiers saw their primary mission as defending the Hungarian people from a NATO invasion. The intervention was politically confused: when a column of tanks intersected a protest march on the parliament, the tanks accompanied protestors. October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... The NATO flag NATO 2002 Summit in Prague The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), sometimes called North Atlantic Alliance, Atlantic Alliance or the Western Alliance, is an international organisation for defence collaboration established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington, D.C., on April 4...

While Soviet troops fought in Budapest, the rest of the country was largely quiet. Soviet commanders often negotiated local cease-fires with the revolutionaries. In some regions, the Soviet forces managed to halt revolutionary activity. In Budapest, the Soviet troops were eventually fought to a stand-still.

Government: in the hands of Nagy or the councils?

During the following fortnight, many workers councils and national councils were formed. The workers councils were much like the independent Russian soviets of 1905 or 1917. The national councils were like the workers councils, but governing a geographic area. Political parties from before 1945 or 1949 crackdowns were reformed, but the majority of the population only supported parties which proposed to keep socialism. A workers council is a council, or deliberative body, composed of working class or proletarian members. ... A soviet (Russian: сове́т) originally was a workers local council in late Imperial Russia. ...

Many political prisoners were released including major Church figures.

Popular sentiment and reports of threatening Soviet troop movements forced the government of Imre Nagy to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. Although widely believed that this action caused the renewed Soviet military intervention, minutes of the meetings of the Presidium of the Soviet Communist Party indicate a different series of events. Imre Nagy (born in Kaposvár, Hungary June 7, 1896, executed June 16, 1958) was Prime Minister of Hungary on two occasions. ... Seal of the Warsaw Pact Distinguish from the Warsaw Convention, which is an agreement among airlines about financial liability. ...

While the Presidium had debated, and decided, not to intervene prior to the withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, a hardline faction around Molotov were pushing for intervention. While Khrushchev and Zhukov were pushing against intervention, the withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact cemented the Presidium's hardline position. Vyacheslav Molotov Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (Russian: Вячесла́в Миха́йлович Мо́лотов) (February 25, 1890 (O.S.) (March 9, 1890 (N.S.))–November 8, 1986), Soviet politician and diplomat, was a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s, when he rose to power as a protege of Joseph Stalin, to the 1950s, when he... Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchof (Khrushchev) (Russian: Ники́та Серге́евич Хрущёв â–¶ (help· info), April 17, 1894 â€“ September 11, 1971) was the leader of the Soviet Union after the death of Joseph Stalin. ... Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgi Zhukov Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov (Russian: Георгий Константинович Жуков) (December 1 N.S./November 19 O.S., 1896 – June 18, 1974), Soviet military commander and politician, considered by many as one of the most successful field commanders of World War II. // Prewar career Born into a peasant family...

The key tendencies which alarmed the Presidium of the Soviet Party were the simultaneous movements towards a multiparty parliamentary democracy on the part of the Nagy government, and a movement towards a democratic and revolutionary national council of workers on the part of the council movement. Both of these tendencies threatened the dominance of the Soviet Party in the satellite states and in the Soviet Union itself.

While Britain and France were intervening in the Suez crisis, the United States declared its position through John Foster Dulles in late October: "The United States does not consider Hungary an ally." Combatants Israel, France, United Kingdom Egypt Commanders Moshe Dayan (CoS of the IDF) General Sir Charles Keightley (C-in-C), Vice-Admiral Pierre Barjot (Deputy) Gamal Abdel Nasser Strength 45,000 British, 34,000 French, 175,000 Israeli 300,000 Egyptians Casualties 200 Israelis, 107 British, 43 French dead or... John Foster Dulles John Foster Dulles (February 2, 1888 – May 24, 1959) was an American statesman who served as Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from (1953 - 1959). ...

With this combination of political and foreign policy considerations, the Presidium decided to break the cease-fire and eliminate the Hungarian revolution.

4 November onwards

On 4 November, plans which had been in motion for a number of days reached their fruition. New Soviet troops, who shared no sympathy for the Hungarians, invaded. While the Soviet Union justified its second intervention on the basis of responsibility to a Warsaw Pact ally, in the form of the Kádár government formed on 3 November, the Soviet forces allocated came from national reserves, and other Warsaw Pact countries did not supply troops. November 4 is the 308th day of the year (309th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 57 days remaining. ... November 4 is the 308th day of the year (309th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 57 days remaining. ... November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 58 days remaining. ...

This intervention, unlike the intervention of 23 October, did not rely on unsupported tank columns penetrating dense urban areas. The 4 November intervention was built around a combined arms strategy of air strikes, artillery bombardments, and coordinated tank-infantry actions (Soviets brought some 6000 tanks) in penetrating urban core areas. While the Hungarian Army put up an uncoordinated resistance, it was working class Hungarians, organised by their councils, who played the key role in fighting the Soviet troops. Due to the strength of working class resistance, it was the industrial and proletarian areas of Budapest which were primarily targeted by Soviet artillery and airstrikes. These actions continued in an improvised manner until the workers' councils, students and intellectuals called for a cease-fire on 10 November. October 23 is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 69 days remaining. ... November 4 is the 308th day of the year (309th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 57 days remaining. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is called a proletarian. ... November 10 is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 51 days remaining. ...

Between 10 November and 19 December the workers' councils negotiated directly with the Soviet occupation force. While they achieved some releases of political prisoners, they did not achieve their aims of a Soviet withdrawal. November 10 is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 51 days remaining. ... December 19 is the 353rd day of the year (354th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

János Kádár formed a new government, with the support of the Soviet Union, and after December 1956 steadily increased his control over Hungary. János Kádár János Kádár János Kádár, né János Csermanek (May 26, 1912–July 6, 1989), was the communist dictator of Hungary from 1956 to 1988, and twice served as Prime Minister of Hungary, from 1956 to 1958 and from 1961...

Sporadic armed resistance and strikes continued until midway through 1957.

Imre Nagy and many others were tried and executed by Kádár's government. The CIA's estimates published in the 1960s approximate 1200 executions. Imre Nagy (born in Kaposvár, Hungary June 7, 1896, executed June 16, 1958) was Prime Minister of Hungary on two occasions. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from 1960 to 1969, inclusive. ...

By 1963 most political prisoners from the Hungarian revolution of 1956 had been released by János Kádár. A political prisoner is anyone held in prison or otherwise detained, perhaps under house arrest, because their ideas or image are deemed by a government to either challenge or threaten the authority of the state. ...

Why it happened

Motivations

Economic collapse and low standards of living provoked working class discontent, which was visible during soccer riots. Peasants were unhappy with land policies. The Communist Party was unable to unite its reformist and Stalinist wings. Journalists and authors were upset with their working conditions, and took control of their trade union. Students were upset with academic conditions and University entrance criteria and established independent student unions. Nikita Khrushchev's speech on the Soviet government under Stalin caused much debate within the elite of the Hungarian communist party. As the Hungarian communist party was blinded by leadership debates, the population took action. Stalinism is a brand of political theory, and the political and economic system implemented by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchof (Khrushchev) (Russian: Ники́та Серге́евич Хрущёв â–¶ (help· info), April 17, 1894 â€“ September 11, 1971) was the leader of the Soviet Union after the death of Joseph Stalin. ... The Secret Speech is the common name of a speech given on February 25, 1956 by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denouncing the actions of Josef Stalin. ...

See also

• Peter Fryer
• Suez triangle
• 1956

Peter Fryer (born February 18, 1927) is an English Socialist writer and journalist. ... The Suez Trinagle is a concept, favoured especially by the early 1980s political literature in the soviet bloc, which stated that major world events of October 1956 were interconnected as part of a western-funded conspiracy. ... 1956 (MCMLVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• The 1956 Portal: 1956 photos, videos, resources, and events across the US
• The American Hungarian Federation's 1956 information site
• Institute of Revolutionary History, Hungary
• A detailed description of the revolution
• Hungary '56 by Andy Anderson also available free at the libcom.org/library
• Hungarian Tragedy, eyewitness account by Peter Fryer
• The Hungarian Revolt, October 23 - November 4, 1956 by Richard Lettis and William I. Morris, Editors, ebook
• Economic factors leading to Revolution