The victory of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)

The Thirty Years War was fought between the years 1618 and 1648, principally on the territory of today's Germany, but also involving most of the major continental powers. It occurred for a number of reasons. Although it was from its outset a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics, the self-preservation of the Habsburg dynasty was also a central motive. Gustavuss victory at Breitenfeld from [1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Gustavuss victory at Breitenfeld from [1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Gustav II Adolf (also known as Gustaf Adolf den store or Gustavus II Adolphus) (December 9, 1594 – November 6, 1632 O.S.), widely known by the Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus and referred to by Protestants as the Lion of the North, was King of Sweden from 1611 until his death. ... Combatants Saxony Saxony Holy Roman Empire Catholic Leauge Commanders Gustavus Adolphus John George I Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly Strength 23,000 swedes, 17,000 saxons 33,000 Casualties 3500 Swedes and 2000 Saxons dead 7600 dead, 6000 captured and many recruited into the swedish army {{{notes}}} The Battle of... Events March 8 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery). ... // Events January 17 - Englands Long Parliament passes the Vote of No Address, breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War. ... Protestantism is a movement within Christianity, representing the splitting away from the Roman Catholic Church during the mid-to-late Renaissance in Europe—a period known as the Protestant Reformation. ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ...

Origins of the War

Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. He urged the Council of Trent to approve married clergy and Communion in Both kinds

The Peace of Augsburg (1555) confirmed the result of the 1526 Diet of Speyer and ended the violence between the Lutherans and the Catholics in Germany. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Ferdinand I Habsburg Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (March 10, 1503 – July 25, 1564) was one of the Habsburg emperors that at various periods during his life ruled over Austria, Germany, Bohemia and Hungary. ... The Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Czech Země koruny české, Latin Corona regni Bohemiae) (e. ... The Council of Trent is reckoned by the Roman Catholic Church to be the Nineteenth Ecumenical Council of the universal church. ... Clerical celibacy is the practice of various religious traditions in which clergy, monastics and those in religious orders (female or male) adopt a celibate life, refraining from marriage, sexual relationships including masturbation and impure thoughts (such as sexual visualisation and fantasies). ... Communion, more widely known as the Eucharist, is the rite that Christians perform in fulfillment of Jesuss instruction, as recounted in the New Testament (Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24-25), to do in memory of him what at his Last Supper he did when he gave his... The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty signed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League on September 25, 1555 at the city of Augsburg in Germany. ... Events Russia breaks 60 year old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland February 2 - Diet of Augsburg begins February 4 - John Rogers becomes first Protestant martyr in England February 9 - Bishop of Gloucester John Hooper is burned at the stake May 23 - Paul IV becomes Pope. ... Events January 14 - Treaty of Madrid. ... The term Diet of Speyer refers to any of several sessions of the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire when it chose to meet in the city of Speyer, Germany. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ...

It said that;

• German Princes (numbering 225) could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) for their realms according to their conscience (the principle of cuius regio eius religio).
• Lutherans living in an ecclesiastical state (under the control of a bishop) could remain Lutherans.
• Lutherans could keep the territory that they had captured from the Catholic Church since the Peace of Passau (1552).
• The ecclesiastical leaders of the Catholic Church (bishops) that converted to Lutheranism had to give up their territory (archbishoprics/bishoprics).

Political and economic tensions grew among many of the powerful nations of Europe in the early 17th century. Cuius regio, eius religio is a phrase in Latin that means, Whose the region is, his religion. ... Categories: Wikipedia cleanup | Stub ... Events April - War between Henry II of France and Emperor Charles V. Henry invades Lorraine and captures Toul, Metz, and Verdun. ... An ecclesiastical province is a unit of religious government existing in certain Christian churches. ... Pope Pius XI blesses Bishop Stephen Alencastre as fifth Apostolic Vicar of the Hawaiian Islands in a Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace window. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ...

• Spain was interested in the German states, because it held the territories of the Spanish Netherlands on the western border of the German states;
• France was interested in the German states, because it wanted to quell the growing power of the Habsburgs, whose realms surrounded France on land;
• Sweden and Denmark were interested in gaining control over northern German states bordering the Baltic Sea.

Religious tensions were growing throughout the second half of the 16th Century as well. The Peace of Augsburg was unravelling throughout the second half of the century as some converted bishops had not given up their bishoprics; as Calvinism was spreading throughout Germany, adding a third major religion to the region; and as certain Catholic rulers in Spain and Eastern Europe sought to restore the power of Catholicism in the region. This article or section should be merged with Seventeen Provinces The Spanish Netherlands was a portion of the Low Countries controlled by Spain from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. ... The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53 deg. ... Calvinism is a system of Christian theology and an approach to Christian life and thought, articulated by John Calvin, a Protestant Reformer in the 16th century, and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin and his interpretation of Scripture. ...

Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. His intolerance of the Protestant cause was the proximate cause of the war

Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia issued a charter of religious freedom to Bohemian Protestants in 1609

Much to the consternation of their Spanish ruling cousins, the Habsburg emperors who followed the tolerant Charles V (especially Ferdinand I and Maximilian II, but also Rudolf II, and his successor Matthias) were supportive towards their subjects' religious choices, being aware of the deathly evils and turmoil England had suffered due to official religious intolerance starting in 1534 under King Henry VIII and his successors. They avoided religious wars within the empire by allowing the different religions to spread there, which upset those who wanted religious uniformity. Sweden and Denmark, meanwhile, were both Lutheran kingdoms and sought to assist the Protestant cause in the empire as well as to gain political and economic influence. Download high resolution version (348x641, 43 KB)Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II with his court midget [1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus... Download high resolution version (348x641, 43 KB)Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II with his court midget [1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus... Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (July 9, 1578 – February 15, 1637), of the house of Habsburg, ruled 1620-1637. ... The Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Czech Země koruny české, Latin Corona regni Bohemiae) (e. ... Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II from [1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II from [1] The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II Rudolph IIs personal imperial crown, later crown of the Austrian Empire Rudolf II Habsburg was an emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, king of Bohemia, and king of Hungary. ... The Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Czech Země koruny české, Latin Corona regni Bohemiae) (e. ... // Events April 4 – King of Spain signs an edit of expulsion of all moriscos from Spain April 9 – Spain recognizes Dutch independence May 23 - Official ratification of the Second Charter of Virginia. ... Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. ... Ferdinand I Habsburg Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (March 10, 1503 – July 25, 1564) was one of the Habsburg emperors that at various periods during his life ruled over Austria, Germany, Bohemia and Hungary. ... Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II Maximilian II of the Habsburg dynasty was born July 31, 1527 at Vienna and died October 12, 1576 in Regensburg. ... Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II Rudolph IIs personal imperial crown, later crown of the Austrian Empire Rudolf II Habsburg was an emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, king of Bohemia, and king of Hungary. ... Holy Roman Emperor Matthias Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor (1612-1619) was born in Vienna on February 24, 1557 and died in Vienna on March 20, 1619. ... Events February 27 - Group of Anabaptists of Jan Matthys seize Münster and declare it The New Jerusalem - they begin to exile dissenters and forcible baptize all others May 10 - Jacques Cartier explores Newfoundland while searching for the Northwest Passage. ... Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England and Lord of Ireland (later King of Ireland) from 22 April 1509 until his death. ... Protestantism is a movement within Christianity, representing the splitting away from the Roman Catholic Church during the mid-to-late Renaissance in Europe—a period known as the Protestant Reformation. ...

These tensions broke into violence in the German free city of Donauwörth in 1606. The Lutheran majority barred the Catholic residents of the Swabian town from holding a procession, causing a violent riot to break out. This prompted foreign intervention by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria (1573–1651) on behalf of the Catholics. After the violence ceased, the Calvinists in Germany (who were still in their infancy and quite a minority) felt the most threatened, so they banded together in the League of Evangelical Union, created in 1608 under the leadership of the Palatine elector Frederick IV (1583–1610), (whose son, Frederick V, married Elizabeth Stuart, the daughter of James I of England). He had control of the Rhenish Palatinate, one of the very states along the Rhine River that Spain wanted to acquire. This provoked Catholics to band together in the Catholic League (created in 1609) under the leadership of the afore-mentioned Duke Maximilian. A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... Known as Nordschwabens freundliche Mitte (North Swabias Friendly Center), Donauwörth is a city in the German State of Bavaria (Bayern), in the region of Swabia (Schwabenland). ... Events January 27 - The trial of Guy Fawkes and other conspirators begins ending in their execution on January 31 May 17 - Supporters of Vasili Shusky invade the Kremlin and kill Premier Dmitri December 26 - Shakespeares King Lear performed in court Storm buries a village of St Ismails near... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Maximilian I, Elector and Duke of Bavaria and his second wife, Maria Anna of Austria Maximilian I, Elector and Duke of Bavaria (17 April 1573 – 27 September 1651), called the Great,, was a Wittelsbach ruler of Bavaria and an prince-elector (Kurfürst) of the Holy Roman Empire. ... The Protestant Union or Evangelical Union was a coalition of Protestant German states that formed in the 1600s. ... Events March 18 - Sissinios formally crowned Emperor of Ethiopia May 14 - Protestant Union founded in Auhausen. ... A palatinate is a territory administered by a count palatine, originally the direct representative of the sovereign, but later the hereditary ruler of the territory subject to the crowns overlordship. ... The prince-electors or electoral princes of the Holy Roman Empire — German: Kurfürst (singular) Kurfürsten (plural) — were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Emperors of Germany. ... Frederick IV, Elector Palatine of the Rhine (March 5, 1574-September 19, 1610), only surviving son of Louis VI, Elector Palatine, called Frederick the Righteous (in German, Friedrich Der Aufrichtige; in French Frédéric IV le juste). ... There are many different people who may be referred to as Frederick V or Friedrich V. They are listed here in chronological order: Friedrich V, Burggraf of Hohenzollern-Nürnberg (before 1333 - 1398) Friedrich V, Count of Leiningen (died 1327) Friedrich V of Castell, (fl. ... There were many people whose name was Elizabeth Stuart, including: Elizabeth of Bohemia Elizabeth Stuart (died January 23, 1673 or 1674) was the mother of Thomas Howard, 5th Duke of Norfolk, and married to Henry Frederick Howard, 25th Earl of Arundel. ... James VI of Scotland and James I of England and Ireland (Charles James) (June 19, 1566–March 27, 1625) was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland. ... The Palatinate (German: Pfalz), historically also Rhenish Palatinate (German: Rheinpfalz), is a region in south-western Germany. ... The Rhine canyon (Ruinaulta) in Graubünden in Switzerland Length 1. ... This article is about the 17th century German union. ... // Events April 4 – King of Spain signs an edit of expulsion of all moriscos from Spain April 9 – Spain recognizes Dutch independence May 23 - Official ratification of the Second Charter of Virginia. ...

Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor and the King of Bohemia, died without descendents in 1619, and his lands went to his nearest male relative, his cousin Ferdinand of Styria. Ferdinand, who became King of Bohemia and Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, was a staunch Catholic who had been educated by the Jesuits and who wanted to restore Catholicism. He was therefore unpopular in primarily Hussite Bohemia, whose rejection of Ferdinand launched the Thirty Years' War, which can be divided into four major phases: the Bohemian Revolt, Danish intervention, Swedish intervention, and the French intervention. Matthias can refer to: Saint Matthias Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor Matthias Corvinus This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Bohemia. ... Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. ... Coat of arms of the Dukes of Styria, crowned with the ducal hat, today state coat The Duchy of Styria (German: Herzogtum Steiermark, Slovenian Å tajerska) was a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, and a crownland of Austria-Hungary until its dissolution in 1918. ... Bohemia. ... Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (July 9, 1578 – February 15, 1637), of the house of Habsburg, ruled 1620-1637. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... The Hussites comprised a Christian movement following the teachings of the reformer Jan Hus (circa 1369–1415), who was influenced by John Wyclif and became one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. ...

The Bohemian Revolt

Period: 1618–1625 Events March 8 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery). ... Events March 27 - Prince Charles Stuart becomes King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland. ...

Frederick V, Elector Palatine as King of Bohemia. Painted by Gerrit von Honthorst in 1634, two years after the subject's death. Frederick is called the "Winter King" of Bohemia because he reigned for less than three months in 1620 after he was installed by a rebellious faction. He is shown here wearing the rarely-seen Crown of St. Wenceslas and other Boheminan Regalia. Inexplicably, he is shown wearing the ceremonial collar of the exclusive Order of the Golden Fleece for which he, as a non-Catholic, was not eligible and he does not appear in the register of its members. On the table is the Cap representing his separate office as Elector of the Palatinate

Being without descendents, Emperor Mathias sought to assure an orderly transition during his lifetime by having his dynastic heir (that fiercely Catholic, Ferdinand of Styria, later Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor) elected to the separate royal thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. Some of the Protestant leaders of Bohemia feared losing the religious rights granted to them by Emperor Rudolf II and so preferred the Protestant Frederick V, elector of the Palatinate (successor of Frederick IV, the creator of the League of Evangelical Union). But other Protestants supported the position also taken by the Catholic forces and so in 1617 Ferdinand was duly elected by the Bohemian Estates to become crown prince, and automatically, upon the death of Mathias, the next King of Bohemia. When the king-elect sent two Catholic councillors (Wilhelm Grav Slavata and Jaroslav Borzita Graf Von Martinicz) as his representatives to Hradčany castle in Prague in May 1618 to administer the government in his absence, the Bohemian Calvinists seized them, subjected them to a mock trial, and threw them out of a palace window. The Catholic version of the story claims that angels appeared and carried them to safety. The Protestant version says that they landed in manure. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1000x1424, 232 KB) Description Painting depicting Frederick V, Elector Palatine (1596 - 1632) as King of Bohemia. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1000x1424, 232 KB) Description Painting depicting Frederick V, Elector Palatine (1596 - 1632) as King of Bohemia. ... Frederick is also called the Winter King of Bohemia because he reigned for less than three winter months in 1620 after he was installed by a rebellious Protestant faction. ... Events Moses Amyrauts Traite de la predestination is published Curaçao captured by the Dutch Treaty of Polianovska First meeting of the Académie française The witchcraft affair at Loudun Jean Nicolet lands at Green Bay, Wisconsin Opening of Covent Garden Market in London English establish a settlement... Bohemia. ... Events September 6 - English emigrants on the Mayflower depart from Plymouth, England for the future New England and arrive at the end of the year. ... The Order of the Golden Fleece (Orden del Toisón de Oro in Spanish) is an order of chivalry founded in 1430 by Duke Philip III of Burgundy to celebrate his marriage to the Portuguese princess Isabelle of Aviz. ... The prince-electors or electoral princes of the Holy Roman Empire — German: Kurfürst (singular) Kurfürsten (plural) — were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Emperors of Germany. ... A palatinate is a territory administered by a count palatine, originally the direct representative of the sovereign, but later the hereditary ruler of the territory subject to the crowns overlordship. ... Holy Roman Emperor Matthias Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor (1612-1619) was born in Vienna on February 24, 1557 and died in Vienna on March 20, 1619. ... Styria (Steiermark in German, Štajerska in Slovenian) can refer to: Styria - a federal state of Austria Styria - an informal province in Slovenia Styria - a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire and crownland of Austria-Hungary This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise... Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (July 9, 1578 – February 15, 1637), of the house of Habsburg, ruled 1620-1637. ... Bohemia. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II Rudolf II Habsburg was an emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, king of Bohemia, and king of Hungary. ... Frederick is also called the Winter King of Bohemia because he reigned for less than three winter months in 1620 after he was installed by a rebellious Protestant faction. ... Frederick IV, Elector Palatine of the Rhine (March 5, 1574-September 19, 1610), only surviving son of Louis VI, Elector Palatine, called Frederick the Righteous (in German, Friedrich Der Aufrichtige; in French Frédéric IV le juste). ... The Protestant Union or Evangelical Union was a coalition of Protestant German states that formed in the 1600s. ... Events Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ahmed I (1603-1617) to Mustafa I (1617-1623). ... Hradčany from the Petřín Tower Hradčany (   listen[?]), the Castle District, is the Prague district surrounding the Prague Castle. ... Prague Castle at night. ... Prague (Czech: Praha, see also other names) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. ... Events March 8 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery). ... In an unadorned church, the 17th century congregation stands to hear the sermon. ... Animal manure is often a mixture of animals faeces and bedding straw, as in this example from a stable. ...

This event, known as the Second Defenestration of Prague, began the Bohemian Revolt. Soon the Bohemian conflict erupted in the entirety of Greater Bohemia, effectively Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia and Moravia, which was already riven by conflict between Catholics and Protestants. This confrontation was to find many facets and mirrors across the continent of Europe with the involvement of France, Sweden, inter alia. Two incidents in the history of Bohemia are known as the Defenestrations of Prague. ... Bohemia. ... Prussian Silesia, 1871, outlined in yellow; Silesia at the close of the Seven Years War in 1763, outlined in cyan (areas now in the Czech Republic were Austrian-ruled at that time) Silesia (Polish: , German: ( (help· info)), Czech: ) is a historical region in central Europe. ... Lusatia (German Lausitz, Upper Sorbian Łužica, Lower Sorbian Łužyca, Polish Łużyce, Czech Lužice, sometimes called Sorbia, is a historical region between Bóbr-Kwisa rivers and Elbe river in northeastern Germany (states of Saxony and Brandenburg), south-western Poland (voivodship of Lower Silesia and northern Czech... Moravia in relation to the current kraje of the Czech Republic Moravia (Czech and Slovak: Morava, German: ( (help· info)), Hungarian: Morvaország, Polish: Morawy) is a historical region in the east of the Czech Republic. ... Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents of Earth which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiographic one. ...

Had the Bohemian rebellion remained a purely Eastern European affair, the war could have been over in fewer than thirty months, but the death of Emperor Mathias in 1619 emboldened the rebellious Protestant leaders who had been on the verge of a settlement. The weaknesses of both Ferdinand (now officially on the throne after the death of Emperor Mathias) and of the Bohemians themselves led to the spread of the war to western Germany. Ferdinand was compelled to call on his nephew, King Philip IV of Spain for assistance. Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. ... Philip IV of Castille (Spanish: Felipe IV) (April 8, 1605 – September 17, 1665) was the king of Spain, from 1621 until his death, and king of Portugal as Philip III (Portuguese: Filipe III) until 1640. ...

The Bohemians, desperate for allies against the Emperor, applied to be admitted to the Protestant Union, led by their original candidate for the Bohemian throne, the Calvinist Frederick V, Elector Palatine. The Bohemians hinted that the Palatine Elector would become King of Bohemia if he allowed them to join the Union and come under its protection — however, similar offers were made by other members of the Bohemian Estates to the Duke of Savoy, the Elector of Saxony, and the Prince of Transylvania. The Austrians, who seemed to have intercepted every letter leaving Prague, made public these duplicities, and unraveled much support for the Bohemians, particularly in the court of Saxony. The Protestant Union or Evangelical Union or Union of Auhausen was a coalition of Protestant German states that was formed in 1608 to defend the rights, lands and person of each member. ... In an unadorned church, the 17th century congregation stands to hear the sermon. ... Frederick is also called the Winter King of Bohemia because he reigned for less than three winter months in 1620 after he was installed by a rebellious Protestant faction. ... Charles Emmanuel I (b. ... John George I (5 March 1585 - 8 October 1656), elector of Saxony, second son of the elector Christian I. He succeeded to the electorate in June 1611 on the death of his elder brother, Christian II. The geographical position of electoral Saxony hardly less than her high standing among the... Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania (1580-1629) Gabriel (Gabor) Bethlen (Hungarian: Bethlen Gábor, Slovak: Gabriel Betlen) (1580-1629), prince of Transylvania (1613-1629) and leader of a anti-Habsburg insurrection in the Habsburg Royal Hungary on the territory of present-day Slovakia. ...

The rebellion initially favoured the Bohemians. They were joined in revolt by much of Upper Austria whose nobility was Lutheran and Calvinist (a fact that would swiftly change in the coming years.) Lower Austria revolted soon after and in 1619, Count Thurn led an army to the walls of Vienna itself. In the East, the Protestant Prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen, led a spirited campaign into Hungary with the blessings of the Turkish Sultan. The Emperor, who had been preoccupied with the Uzkok War, hurried to reform an army to stop the Bohemians and their allies from entirely overwhelming his country. Count Bucquoy, the commander of the Austrian army, defeated the forces of the Protestant Union at the Battle of Sablat, led by Count Mansfeld, on 10 June 1619. This cut off Count Thurn's communications with Prague, and he abandoned his siege of Vienna at once. Sablat also cost the Protestants an important ally — Savoy, long an opponent of Habsburg expansion, had already sent considerable sums to the Protestants and even troops to garrison fortresses in the Rhineland. The capture of Mansfeld's field chancery revealed the Savoyards' plot, and forced the embarrassed duke to leave the war. Upper Austria (Ober sterreich) is one of the nine federal states or Bundesl nder of Austria. ... Map of Lower Austria showing districts and the four quarters (Waldviertel in green, Weinviertel in red, Mostviertel in yellow and Industrieviertel in blue) Lower Austria (de: Niederösterreich) is one of the nine states or Länder in Austria. ... Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. ... Vienna (German: Wien [viːn]; Slovenian: Dunaj, Croatian and Serbian: Beč Romanian: Viena, Hungarian: Bécs, Czech: Vídeň, Slovak: Viedeň, Romany Vidnya;) Vienna is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania (1580-1629) Gabriel (Gabor) Bethlen (Hungarian: Bethlen Gábor, Slovak: Gabriel Betlen) (1580-1629), prince of Transylvania (1613-1629) and leader of a anti-Habsburg insurrection in the Habsburg Royal Hungary on the territory of present-day Slovakia. ... Karel Bonaventura Buquoy (1571 - 1621) was a military commander of French ancestry who fought for the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years War. ... The Protestant Union or Evangelical Union or Union of Auhausen was a coalition of Protestant German states that was formed in 1608 to defend the rights, lands and person of each member. ... The Battle of Sablat, also called the battle of Záblatí in Czech, occurred on 10 June 1619 during the Bohemian period of the Thirty Years War. ... June 10 is the 161st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (162nd in leap years), with 204 days remaining. ... Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ... The Rhineland (Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany, although some consider the lands to the east of the river culturally distinct, jovially referring to them as Schäl Sick; the bad or wrong side...

In spite of Sablat, Count Thurn's army continued to exist as an effective force, and Mansfeld managed to reform his army further north in Bohemia. The Estates of Upper and Lower Austria, still in revolt, signed an alliance with the Bohemians in early August, and on the 22 August 1620 Ferdinand was officially deposed as King of Bohemia, replaced by the Palatine Elector, Frederick V. In Hungary, even though the Bohemians had reneged on their offer of their crown, the Transylvanians continued to make surprising progress, driving the Emperor's armies from that country by 1620. August 22 is the 234th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (235th in leap years), with 131 days remaining. ... Events September 6 - English emigrants on the Mayflower depart from Plymouth, England for the future New England and arrive at the end of the year. ...

Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, commander of the Bavarian and Imperial armies

The Spanish sent an army from Brussels under Ambrosio Spinola to support the Emperor, and the Spanish ambassador in Vienna, Don Inigo Onate, persuaded Protestant Saxony to intervene against Bohemia in exchange for control over Lusatia. The Saxons invaded, and the Spanish army in the West prevented the Protestant Union's forces from assisting. Onate conspired to transfer the electoral title from the Palatinate to the Duke of Bavaria in exchange for his support and that of the Catholic League. Under the command of General Tilly, the Catholic League army (which included René Descartes in its ranks) pacified Upper Austria, while the Emperor's forces pacified Lower Austria; united, the two moved north into Bohemia. Ferdinand II decisively defeated Frederick V at the Battle of White Mountain, near Prague on 8 November 1620. In addition to making it Catholic, Bohemia would remain in Habsburg hands for three hundred years. Catholic General Tilly of Thirty Years War fame, from the Swedish Wikipedia. ... Catholic General Tilly of Thirty Years War fame, from the Swedish Wikipedia. ... Ambrosio Spinola Doria, marqués de los Balbases (1569 - September 25, 1650), Spanish general, was born in Genoa in 1569. ... The Free State of Saxony (German: Freistaat Sachsen; Sorbian: Swobodny Stata Sakska) is at a land area of 18,413 km² and a population of 4. ... Count Tilly on a portrait by van Dyck Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly (February, 1559 - April 30, 1632) was a general in Bavarian and later imperial service during the Thirty Years War, who Ferdinand II depended upon (since Wallenstein was a threat). ... For other things named Descartes, see Descartes (disambiguation). ... The Battle of White Mountain, November 8, 1620 (Bílá hora is the name of White Mountain in Czech) was an early battle in the Thirty Years War in which an army of 20,000 Bohemians and mercenaries under Christian of Anhalt were routed by 25,000 men of the... Prague (Czech: Praha, see also other names) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. ... November 8 is the 312th day of the year (313th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 53 days remaining. ... Events September 6 - English emigrants on the Mayflower depart from Plymouth, England for the future New England and arrive at the end of the year. ...

That defeat caused the dissolution of the League of Evangelical Union and the destruction of Frederick V's holdings. Frederick V was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire and his territories, the Rhenish Palatinate, were given to Catholic nobles, while his title of elector of the Palatinate was given to his distant cousin Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Frederick V, although landless, made himself a prominent exile abroad, and tried to curry support for his cause in the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden. The Protestant Union or Evangelical Union was a coalition of Protestant German states that formed in the 1600s. ...

It was a serious blow to Protestant ambitions in the region. The rebellion collapsed and widespread confiscations of property and suppression of the Bohemian nobility ensured that the country would return to the Catholic fold after more than two centuries of Hussite and other religious dissent. The Spanish, seeking to outflank the Dutch in preparation for the soon-to-be-renewed Eighty Years' War, took Frederick's lands, the Rhine Palatinate. The first phase of the war in Eastern Germany ended when Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania signed the Peace of Nikolsburg with the Emperor on December 31, 1621, gaining a number of territories in Royal Hungary. The Hussites comprised a Christian movement following the teachings of the reformer Jan Hus (circa 1369–1415), who was influenced by John Wyclif and became one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. ... The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt, was the war of secession between the Netherlands and the Spanish king, that lasted from 1568 to 1648. ... The Rhenish Palatinate (Rheinpfalz, sometimes Lower Palatinate or Niederpfalz) occupies rather more than a quarter of the German Bundesland (federal state) of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz) and contains the towns of Ludwigshafen, Kaiserslautern, Neustadt an der Weinstrasse, Pirmasens, Landau and Speyer. ... The Peace of Nikolsburg or Peace of Mikulov was signed on December 31, 1621 in Nikolsburg, Moravia (now Mikulov in the Czech Republic). ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Events February 9 - Gregory XV is elected pope. ... Royal Hungary was the official name of the territory of present-day Slovakia, Burgenland, western Croatia and small adjacent territories between c. ...

Some historians regard the period from 1621–1625 as a separate phase of the Thirty Years War, calling it the Palatinate phase. The catastrophic defeat of the Protestant army at White Mountain and the departure of Gabriel Bethlen meant the pacification of greater Bohemia. The war in the West, Palatinate, consisted of much smaller battles than the Bohemian and Hungarian campaigns and a much greater use of siege. Mannheim and Heidelberg fell in 1622, and Frankenthal in 1623. The Palatinate was in the hands of the Spanish. Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania (1580-1629) Gabriel (Gabor) Bethlen (Hungarian: Bethlen Gábor, Slovak: Gabriel Betlen) (1580-1629), prince of Transylvania (1613-1629) and leader of a anti-Habsburg insurrection in the Habsburg Royal Hungary on the territory of present-day Slovakia. ... Basic information Country: Germany Federal state: Land Baden-Württemberg Regions: Rhein-Neckar District: Independent municipality Population: 324,787 (Mai 2005) Additional information Area: 144. ... Heidelberg is a scenic city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, halfway between Stuttgart and Frankfurt. ... Political status Country: Germany Federal state: Rhineland-Palatinate Region: Rhine Neckar Area District: Independent municipality Facts Population: 47,564 (December 2003) Area: 43. ...

The remnant Protestant armies, led by Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, fled for new paymasters in Holland. Although their arrival did lift the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, the Dutch could not long abide this rabble. They cashiered them and sent them off to occupy neighboring East Friesland. Mansfeld remained there, but Christian wandered off to "assist" his kin in the Lower Saxon Circle, attracting the attentions of Tilly. With news that Mansfeld would not be supporting him, Christian's army then began a steady retreat toward the safety of the Dutch border. On August 6, 1623 Tilly's more disciplined army caught up with them 10 miles short of the Dutch border and here at the Battle of Stadlohn, he inflicted a catastrophic defeat to Christian and wiped out over four-fifths of his army, some 15,000 strong. Faced with this news, Frederick V, already in exile in The Hague and under growing pressure from his father-in-law James I of England to end his involvement in the way, he was forced to abandon any hope of launching further campaigns. With the Protestant rebellion rooted in Bohemia now crushed, peace briefly fell upon the Holy Roman Empire. Brief Summary Younger brother of the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. ... Bergen op Zoom is a municipality and a city in the southern Netherlands. ... A map of the Imperial Circles as at the beginning of the 16th century. ... There are many different people who may be referred to as Frederick V or Friedrich V. They are listed here in chronological order: Friedrich V, Burggraf of Hohenzollern-Nürnberg (before 1333 - 1398) Friedrich V, Count of Leiningen (died 1327) Friedrich V of Castell, (fl. ... See James VI of Scotland and I of England James I of Scotland James I of Aragon James I of Sicily James I of Cyprus This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Danish intervention

King Christian IV of Denmark. General of the Lutheran army

Catholic general Albrecht von Wallenstein

Period: 1625–1629 Image File history File links Christian IV of Denmark from sv:Wikipedia From the Swedish Wikipedia: sv:Bild:Kristian IV av Danmark, mÃ¥lning av Pieter Isaacsz 1611-1616. ... Image File history File links Christian IV of Denmark from sv:Wikipedia From the Swedish Wikipedia: sv:Bild:Kristian IV av Danmark, mÃ¥lning av Pieter Isaacsz 1611-1616. ... Image File history File links Albrecht_Wallenstein. ... Image File history File links Albrecht_Wallenstein. ... Events March 27 - Prince Charles Stuart becomes King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland. ... Events March 4 - Massachusetts Bay Colony is granted a Royal charter. ...

The Danish Period began when Christian IV of Denmark (1577–1648), King of Denmark, himself a Lutheran and, as Duke of Holstein, an Imperial nobleman, helped the Lutheran rulers of neighboring Lower Saxony by leading an army against the Holy Roman Empire, fearing that Denmark's sovereignty as a Protestant nation was being threatened. Christian IV had profited greatly from his policies in northern Germany (in 1621 Hamburg had been forced to accept Danish sovereignty and Christian's second son was made bishop of Bremen.) As an administrator, Christian IV had done remarkably well, obtaining for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe, paid for by tolls on the Oresund and extensive war reparations from Sweden. The only country in Europe with a comparably strong financial position was, ironically, Bavaria. It also helped that the French First Minister Cardinal Richelieu, together with the Dutch and English agreed that they would help subsidize the war. Christian had himself appointed war leader of the Lower Saxon Circle and raised a mercenary army of 20,000 men. King Christian IV. Christian IV (April 12, 1577–February 28, 1648), king of Denmark and Norway, the son of Frederick II, king of Denmark and Norway, and Sophia of Mecklenburg, was born at Frederiksborg castle in 1577, and succeeded to the throne on the death of his father (April 4... Events March 17 - formation of the Cathay Company to send Martin Frobisher back to the New World for more gold May 28 - Publication of the Bergen Book, better known as the Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran confessional writings. ... // Events January 17 - Englands Long Parliament passes the Vote of No Address, breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War. ... Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (legislative, judicial and/or executive) authority over a geographic region, group of people or oneself. ... Bremen may mean: Bremen (city), the city in Germany itself Bremen Airport Bremen (state), which comprises the cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven Archbishopric of Bremen, a historical state to the north of the city Duchy of Bremen, a historical state created on the secularization of the archbishopric in 1648 Bremen... Denmark (red) / south Sweden (yellow), connected with the Oresund Bridge. ... Cardinal Richelieu was the French chief minister from 1624 until his death. ...

To fight him off, Ferdinand II employed the military help of Albrecht von Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman who had made himself rich from the confiscated estates of his countrymen. Wallenstein pledged his army of between 30,000 and 100,000 soldiers to Ferdinand II in return for the right to plunder the captured territories. Christian, who knew nothing of Wallenstein's existence when he invaded, was forced to retire before the combination of Wallenstein and Tilly annihilated his army. Christian's poor luck struck him again when all the allies he thought he had were forced aside: England was weak and internally divided, and France was in civil war, Sweden was at war with Poland, and neither Brandenburg nor Saxony were interested in changes to the tenuous peace in eastern Germany. Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld's army at the Battle of Dessau Bridge (1626) and General Tilly defeated the Danes at the Battle of Lutter (1626). Mansfeld died some months later of illness in Dalmatia, exhausted and ashamed of the battle which had cost him half his army. Albrecht von Wallenstein Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein (also Waldstein, Czech: Albrecht Václav Eusebius z Valdštejna), September 24, 1583 – February 25, 1634) was a Bohemian soldier and politician who gave his services (an army of 30,000 to 100,000 men) during the Danish Period of the Thirty... Combatants Protestants Catholic League Commanders Count Ernst von Mansfeld General Albrecht von Wallenstein Strength 12,000 20,000 Casualties 4,000 dead, wounded, or captured Unknown With the entrance of King Christian IV of Denmark into the Thirty Years War in 1625, Protestant forces that had been dealt one defeat... Events September 30 - Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Hong Taiji. ... The Battle of Lutter (Lutter am Barenberge) took place during the Thirty Years War on 27th August 1626 between the forces of the Protestant Christian IV of Denmark and those of the Catholic League. ...

Wallenstein's army marched north, occupying Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and ultimately Jutland itself. However, he was unable to take the Danish capital on the island of Zealand without a fleet and neither the Hanseatic ports nor the Poles would allow an Imperial fleet to be built in the Baltic. He pressed a siege against Stralsund, the only belligerent port on the Baltic which had the facilities to build a fleet to take the Danish islands. However, the cost of continuing to support Wallenstein was exorbitant, particularly compared to what could possibly be gained from the war with Denmark. Mecklenburg is a geographical area located in Northern Germany. ... Historic Western Pomerania (outlined in yellow) on the background of modern country borders. ... Jutland Peninsula Jutland (Danish: Jylland; German: Jütland) is a peninsula in northern Europe that forms the mainland part of Denmark and a northern part of Germany, dividing the North Sea from the Baltic Sea. ... Zealand (Danish: Sjælland ) is the largest island of Denmark. ... The foundations of the Hanseatic League (German: Hanse), an alliance of trading cities that for a time in the later Middle Ages and the Early Modern period maintained a trade monopoly over most of Northern Europe and the Baltic, can be seen as early as the 12th century, with the... Stralsund coat of arms Stralsund (Polish: Strzałów, Strzałowo) is a city in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. ...

This led to the Treaty of Lübeck (1629), in which Christian IV abandoned his support for the Protestants in order to keep his control over Denmark. In the following two years more land was subjugated by Catholic powers.

At this point, the war could have been concluded, but the Catholic League persuaded Ferdinand II to take back the Lutheran holdings that were, according to the Peace of Augsburg, rightfully the possession of the Catholic Church. Described in the Edict of Restitution (1629), these included two Archbishoprics, sixteen bishoprics, and hundreds of monasteries. Mansfeld and Gabriel Bethlen, the first officers of the Protestant cause, were dead in the same year. Only the port of Stralsund held out against Wallenstein and the Emperor, with the assistance first of the Danes and then of the Swedes. This article needs cleanup. ...

Swedish intervention

Gustavus II Adolphus at the Battle at Breitenfeld (1631)

The death of King Gustavus II Adolphus on 16 November 1632 at the Battle of Lützen

Period: 1630–1635 from Swedish Wikipedia The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... from Swedish Wikipedia The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Carl Wahlboms (1810-1858) painting of the Battle of Lützen. ... Carl Wahlboms (1810-1858) painting of the Battle of Lützen. ... Events February 22 - Native American Quadequine introduces Popcorn to English colonists. ... Events February 10 - The Académie française in Paris is expanded to become a national academy for the artistic elite. ...

Some within Ferdinand II's court believed that Wallenstein wanted to take control of the German Princes and thus gain influence over the Emperor. Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein in 1630. He was to later recall him after the Swedes, led by King Gustaf II Adolf (Gustavus II Adolphus), attacked the Empire and prevailed in a number of significant battles. Events February 22 - Native American Quadequine introduces Popcorn to English colonists. ... Gustav II Adolf (also known as Gustaf Adolf den store or Gustavus II Adolpus) (December 9, 1594 – November 6, 1632 O.S.), widely known by the Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus and referred to by Protestants as the Lion of the North, was King of Sweden from 1611 until his death. ...

Gustavus Adolphus, like Christian IV before him, came to aid the German Lutherans, to forestall Catholic aggression against their homeland and to obtain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea. In addition to those reasons, Gustavus was also concerned about the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire. Also like Christian IV, Gustavus Adolphus was subsidized by Richelieu, the Chief Minister of King Louis XIII of France and by the Dutch. From 1630–1634, they drove the Catholic forces back and regained much of the occupied Protestant lands. Events February 22 - Native American Quadequine introduces Popcorn to English colonists. ... Events Moses Amyrauts Traite de la predestination is published Curaçao captured by the Dutch Treaty of Polianovska First meeting of the Académie française The witchcraft affair at Loudun Jean Nicolet lands at Green Bay, Wisconsin Opening of Covent Garden Market in London English establish a settlement...

After he dismissed Albrecht von Wallenstein, Ferdinand II depended on the Catholic League. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Adolphus' forces defeated the Catholic League led by General Tilly. A year later, they met again, and this time General Tilly was killed (1632). The upper hand had now switched from the league to the union, led by Sweden. In 1630, Sweden had paid at least 2,368,022 daler for its army at 42,000 men. In 1632, they paid only one-fifth of that (476,439 daler) for an army three times as large (149,000 men). The main explanation was economic aid from France, and that prisoners (mainly from Breitenfeld) were recruited into the Swedish army. Albrecht von Wallenstein Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein (also Waldstein, Czech: Albrecht Václav Eusebius z Valdštejna), September 24, 1583 – February 25, 1634) was a Bohemian soldier and politician who gave his services (an army of 30,000 to 100,000 men) during the Danish Period of the Thirty... Combatants Saxony Saxony Holy Roman Empire Catholic Leauge Commanders Gustavus Adolphus John George I Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly Strength 23,000 swedes, 17,000 saxons 33,000 Casualties 3500 Swedes and 2000 Saxons dead 7600 dead, 6000 captured and many recruited into the swedish army {{{notes}}} The Battle of... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... The daler or the Riksdaler was the name of the currency used in Sweden until 1873 when it was replaced with the krona as an effect of the Scandinavian Monetary Union. ... The daler or the Riksdaler was the name of the currency used in Sweden until 1873 when it was replaced with the krona as an effect of the Scandinavian Monetary Union. ... Combatants Saxony Saxony Holy Roman Empire Catholic Leauge Commanders Gustavus Adolphus John George I Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly Strength 23,000 swedes, 17,000 saxons 33,000 Casualties 3500 Swedes and 2000 Saxons dead 7600 dead, 6000 captured and many recruited into the swedish army {{{notes}}} The Battle of...

With General Tilly dead, Ferdinand II turned to the aid of Wallenstein and his large army.

Wallenstein marched up to the south, threatening Gustavus Adolphus' supply chain. Gustavus Adolphus knew that Wallenstein was waiting for the attack and was prepared, but there was no other option. Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus clashed in the Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes prevailed, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed. In 1634 the Protestant forces, minus the leadership of Gustavus Adolphus, were defeated at the First Battle of Nördlingen. The Battle of Lützen was one of the most decisive battles of the Thirty Years War. ... Events Moses Amyrauts Traite de la predestination is published Curaçao captured by the Dutch Treaty of Polianovska First meeting of the Académie française The witchcraft affair at Loudun Jean Nicolet lands at Green Bay, Wisconsin Opening of Covent Garden Market in London English establish a settlement... Combatants Sweden Saxony Holy Roman Empire Spain Commanders Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar Gustav Horn Cardinal-Infante of Spain Ferdinand of Hungary Matthias Gallas Strength 16,300 infantry 9,300 cavalry 54 guns 20,000 infantry 13,000 cavalry 32 guns Casualties 13,000–15,000 dead or wounded 3,500...

Ferdinand II's suspicions of Wallenstein flared up again in 1633, when Wallenstein attempted to arbitrate the differences between the Catholic and Protestant sides. Ferdinand II may have feared that Wallenstein would switch sides and arranged for his arrest after removing him from command. One of Wallenstein's soldiers, Captain Devereux, killed him as he attempted to contact the Swedes in the townhouse in Cheb (Eger in German) (February 25, 1634). Events February 13 - Galileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before the Inquisition. ... Cheb (German: Eger) is a city in the Karlovy Vary Region of the Czech Republic. ... February 25 is the 56th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Events Moses Amyrauts Traite de la predestination is published Curaçao captured by the Dutch Treaty of Polianovska First meeting of the Académie française The witchcraft affair at Loudun Jean Nicolet lands at Green Bay, Wisconsin Opening of Covent Garden Market in London English establish a settlement...

After that, the two sides met for negotiations, and they ended the Swedish Period with the Peace of Prague (1635), which: The Peace of Prague of 30 May 1635 was a treaty between the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, and most of the Protestant states of the Empire. ... Events February 10 - The Académie française in Paris is expanded to become a national academy for the artistic elite. ...

• Delayed enforcement of the Edict of Restitution for 40 years and allowed Protestant rulers to retain secularized bishoprics held by them in 1627. This protected the Lutheran rulers of northeastern Germany at the expense of those in the south and west (whose lands had been occupied by the Imperial or League armies well before 1627)

• United army of the emperor and armies of German states to one army of the Holy Roman Empire (although Johann Georg of Saxony and Maximillian of Bavaria kept, as a practical matter, independent command of their forces, now nominally components of the "Imperial" army).

• Forbade German princes to have alliances between them or with foreign powers.

• Gave amnesty to any ruler who took up arms against the Emperor after the arrival of the Swedes in 1630.

This treaty failed, however, to satisfy France, because of the renewed strength it granted the Habsburgs. France then launched the last period of the Thirty Years' War.

Swedish-French intervention

Period: 1636–1648 Events February 24 - King Christian of Denmark gives an order that all beggars that are able to work must be sent to Brinholmen Island to build ships or as galley rowers March 26 - Utrecht University founded in The Netherlands. ... // Events January 17 - Englands Long Parliament passes the Vote of No Address, breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War. ...

Although a Catholic clergyman himself, Cardinal Richelieu allied France with the Protestants

France, though a largely Catholic country, was a rival of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, and now entered the war on the Protestant side. Cardinal Richelieu, the Chief Minister of King Louis XIII of France, felt that the Habsburgs were still too powerful, since they held a number of territories on France's eastern border and had influence in the Netherlands. Download high resolution version (766x1110, 123 KB)Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Download high resolution version (766x1110, 123 KB)Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Cardinal Richelieu was the French chief minister from 1624 until his death. ... Louis XIII (September 27, 1601 – May 14, 1643), called the Just (French: le Juste), was King of France from 1610 to 1643. ...

France therefore allied itself with the Dutch and Sweden. Spain, in retaliation, invaded French territory. The Imperial general Johann von Werth and Spanish commander Cardinal Ferdinand Habsburg ravaged the French provinces of Champagne and Burgundy and even threatened Paris in 1636 before being repulsed by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. Bernhard's victory in the Battle of Compiegne pushed the Habsburg armies back towards the borders of France. Widespread fighting ensued, with neither side gaining an advantage. In 1642, Cardinal Richelieu died. A year later, Louis XIII died, leaving his five-year-old son Louis XIV on the throne. His chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin, began to work for peace. Count Johann von Werth (c. ... Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar (1604 - July 18, 1639), a celebrated general in the Thirty Years War, was the eleventh son of John, duke of Saxe-Weimar. ... Compi gne is a commune in the Oise d partement of France, of which it is a sous-pr fecture. ... Events January 4 - Charles I attempts to arrest five leading members of the Long Parliament, but they escape. ... Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné) (September 5, 1638 – September 1, 1715), reigned as King of France and of Navarre from May 14, 1643 until his death at the age of 77. ... Cardinal Jules Mazarin, French diplomat and statesman Jules Mazarin, born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino; but best known as Cardinal Mazarin (July 14, 1602 – March 9, 1661) served as the France from 1642, until his death. ...

The Battle of Lens, 1648

In 1645, the Swedish marshal Lennart Torstensson defeated the Imperial army at the Battle of Jankau near Prague, and Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé defeated the Bavarian army in the Second Battle of Nördlingen. The last talented commander of the Catholics, Count Franz von Mercy, died in the battle. The Battle of Lens. ... The Battle of Lens. ... // Events January 10 - Archbishop Laud executed on Tower Hill, London. ... Count Lennart Torstenson (August 17, 1603 - April 7, 1651) was a Swedish soldier and the son of Torsten Lennartson, commandant of Älvsborg Fortress. ... The Battle of Jankau was fought by the Swedish army SSE of Prague in Bohemia (part of present-day Czech Republic) on February 23, 1645 during the Thirty Years War. ... Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé (September 8, 1621 - November 11, 1686). ... This article is about the second Battle of Nördlingen fought in 1645 in Germany as part of the Thirty Years War. ...

On March 14, 1647 Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden signed the Truce of Ulm. In 1648 the Swedes (commanded by Marshal Carl Gustaf Wrangel) and the French (led by Turenne and Conde) defeated the Imperial army at the Battle of Zusmarshausen and Lens. These results left only the Imperial territories of Austria safely in Habsburg hands. March 14 is the 73rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (74th in Leap years) with 292 days remaining in the year. ... // Events March 14 - Thirty Years War: Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of Ulm. ... The Free State of Bavaria  (German: Freistaat Bayern), with an area of 70,553 km² (27,241 square miles) and 12. ... Cologne Cathedral with Hohenzollern Bridge Cologne (German: (help· info) ; Kölsch: Kölle) is Germanys fourth-largest city after Berlin, Hamburg and Munich and is the largest city both in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the largest... During the Thirty Years War, French and Swedish forces invaded Bavaria and forced the elector Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria to conclude the Truce of Ulm on March 14, 1647 and to renounce his alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III. By the Autumn he broke the truce and... Carl Gustaf Wrangel Carl Gustaf Wrangel (December 23, 1613 - July 5, 1676) was a Swedish soldier. ... The Battle of Zusmarshausen was fought on May 7, 1648 between the Holy Roman Empire and an alliance of France and Sweden. ... The Battle of Lens (August 20, 1648) was a French victory under Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé against the Spanish army under Archduke Leopold in the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). ...

The Peace of Westphalia

Main article: Peace of Westphalia The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster by Gerard Terborch (1648) Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster by Bartholomeus van der Helst, 1648 The Peace of Westphalia, also known as the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, refers to the...

French General Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Rocroi in 1643, which led to negotiations. At them were Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, the French, the Spanish, the Dutch, the Swiss, the Swedes, the Portuguese and representatives of the Pope. The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 was the result. Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé (September 8, 1621 - November 11, 1686). ... The Battle of Rocroi, fought May 19, 1643, resulted in a decisive victory of the French army under Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, at that time Duke of Enghien, against the Spanish army under General Francisco de Melo. ... // Events January 21 - Abel Tasman discovers Tonga February 6 - Abel Tasman discovers the Fiji islands. ... Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (July 13, 1608 – April 2, 1657), ruled February 15, 1637 – 1657. ... The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster by Gerard Terborch (1648) Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster by Bartholomeus van der Helst, 1648 The Peace of Westphalia, also known as the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, refers to the...

Casualties and disease

The devastation caused by the war has long been a subject of controversy among historians. Estimates of civilian casualties of up to thirty percent of the population of Germany are now treated with caution. The mortality rate was perhaps closer to 15 to 20 percent, with deaths due to armed conflict, famine and disease. Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenary soldiers. It is certain that the war caused serious dislocation to both the economy and population of central Europe, but may have done no more than seriously exacerbate changes that had begun earlier. A mercenary is a soldier who fights, or engages in warfare primarily for private gain, usually with little regard for ideological, national or political considerations. ...

Pestilence of several kinds raged among combatants and civilians in Germany and surrounding lands from 1618 to 1648. Many features of the war spread disease. These included troop movements, the influx of soldiers from foreign countries, and the shifting locations of battle fronts. In addition, the displacement of civilian populations and the overcrowding of refugees into cities led to both disease and famine. Information about numerous epidemics is generally found in local chronicles, such as parish registers and tax records, that are often incomplete and may be exaggerated. The chronicles do show that epidemic disease was not a condition exclusive to war time, but was present in many parts of Germany for several decades prior to 1618. In epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people) is a disease that appears as new cases in a given human population, during a given period, at a rate that substantially exceeds what is expected, based on recent experience (the number of new cases in the population during a...

However, when the Danish and imperial armies met in Saxony and Thuringia during 1625 and 1626, disease and infection in local communities increased. Local chronicles repeatedly referred to "head disease," "Hungarian disease," and a "spotted" disease identified as typhus. After the Mantuan War, between France and the Habsburgs in Italy, the northern half of the Italian peninsula was in the throes of a bubonic plague epidemic (see Italian Plague of 1629-1631). During the unsuccessful siege of Nuremberg, in 1632, civilians and soldiers in both the Swedish and imperial armies succumbed to typhus and scurvy. Two years later, as the imperial army pursued the defeated Swedes into southwest Germany, deaths from epidemics were high along the Rhine River. Bubonic plague continued to be a factor in the war. Beginning in 1634, Dresden, Munich, and smaller German communities such as Oberammergau recorded large number of plague casualties. In the last decades of the war, both typhus and dysentery had become endemic in Germany. The Free State of Saxony (German: Freistaat Sachsen; Sorbian: Swobodny Stata Sakska) is at a land area of 18,413 km² and a population of 4. ... The Free State of Thuringia (German: Freistaat Thüringen) lies in central Germany and is among the smaller of the countrys sixteen Bundesländer (federal states), being eleventh in size with an area of 16,200 km² and twelfth most populous with 2. ... This is about the disease Typhus. ... Der Doctor Schnabel von Rom (English: The Doctor Beak of Rome) engraving by Paul Fürst (after J Columbina). ... The Italian Plague of 1629-1631 was a series of outbreaks of bubonic plague from 1629 through 1631 in northern Italy. ... The Siege of Nuremberg took place in 1632 during the Thirty Years War. ... Scurvy is a disease that results from insufficient intake of vitamin C and leads to the formation of livid spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from almost all mucous membranes. ... At 1,320 kilometres (820 miles) and an average discharge of more than 2,000 cubic meters per second, the Rhine (German Rhein, French Rhin, Dutch Rijn, Romansch: Rein, Italian: Reno) is one of the longest and most important rivers in Europe. ... From left to right: Brühls Terrace; the Hofkirche and the castle; the Semper Opera House. ... Munich and the Bavarian Alps Munich (German: München, (pronounced listen) is the largest city and capital of the German Federal State of Bavaria. ... Oberammergau from the summit of Kofel Oberammergau is a village in Bavaria in Germany, most famous for its production of a passion play depicting the life and death of Jesus. ... Dysentery is an illness involving severe diarrhea that is often associated with blood in the feces. ...

Political consequences

A result of the war, was the enshrinement of a Germany divided among many territories, all of which, despite their membership of the Empire had de facto sovereignty. This significantly hampered the power of the Holy Roman Empire and decentralized German power. It has been speculated that this weakness was a long-term underlying cause of later militant German Romantic nationalism. This article does not cite its references or sources. ...

The Thirty Years' War rearranged the previous structure of power. The conflict made Spain's military and political decline visible. While Spain was preoccupied with fighting in France, Portugal — which had been under Spanish control for 60 years — declared itself independent in 1640. The House of Braganza became the new dynasty of Portugal, beginning with King John IV. Meanwhile, Spain was finally forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic in 1648, ending the Eighty Years' War. With Spain weakening and Germany fractured and bled dry, France became the dominant power in Europe. Events December 1 - Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of Portugal becomes king. ... The House of Bragança (pron. ... John IV of Portugal (Portuguese: João IV de Portugal pron. ... Map of Dutch Republic by Joannes Janssonius The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën; also Dutch Republic or United Provinces in short) was a European republic between 1581 and 1795, which is now known as the Netherlands. ... The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt, was the war of secession between the Netherlands and the Spanish king, that lasted from 1568 to 1648. ...

This defeat for Spain and imperial forces also marked the decline of Habsburg power and allowed the emergence of Bourbon dominance.

From 1643–45, during the last years of the Thirty Years' War, Sweden and Denmark fought in the Torstenson War. The result of that conflict and the conclusion of the great European war at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 helped establish post-war Sweden as a force in Europe. The Hannibal war, Hannibal controversy or Torstenson War was a short period of conflict between Sweden and Denmark/Norway which occurred in 1643 to 1645 during the waning days of the Thirty Years’ War. ... The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster by Gerard Terborch (1648) Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster by Bartholomeus van der Helst, 1648 The Peace of Westphalia, also known as the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, refers to the... // Events January 17 - Englands Long Parliament passes the Vote of No Address, breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War. ...

The edicts agreed upon during the signing of the Peace of Westphalia were instrumental in laying the foundations for what are even today considered the basic tenets of the sovereign nation-state. Aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal (as well as for the newer ones created afterwards), the Peace of Westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. In earlier times, people had tended to have overlapping political and religious loyalties. Now, it was agreed that the citizenry of a respective nation were subjected first and foremost to the laws and whims of their own respective government rather than to those of neighboring powers, be they religious or secular. The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster by Gerard Terborch (1648) Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster by Bartholomeus van der Helst, 1648 The Peace of Westphalia, also known as the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, refers to the...

The war had a few other, more subtle consequences:

• The 30 years war marked the last major religious war in mainland Europe, ending large scale religious bloodshed in 1648. There were still religious conflicts, specifically in Ireland, but no great wars.
• The destruction caused by mercenary soldiers defied description. The war did much to end the age of mercenaries that had begun with the first landsknechts, and ushered in the age of well-disciplined national armies.
• In part because of a desire to avoid destructive wars based on religious differences, separation of church and state was established in the United States Constitution.

// Events January 17 - Englands Long Parliament passes the Vote of No Address, breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War. ... A mercenary is a soldier who fights, or engages in warfare primarily for private gain, usually with little regard for ideological, national or political considerations. ... Landsknechts (German, Land land, country + Knecht servant: i. ...

List of battles in the Thirty Years' War

• Bohemian Revolt
  • Battle of Pilsen (1618 November 21)
  • Battle of Záblatí (1619 June 10)
  • Battle of Vestonice (1619 August 5)
  • Battle of White Mountain (1620)
  • Battle of Wiesloch (1622 April 25)
  • Battle of Wimpfen (1622 May 6)
  • Battle of Höchst (1622 June 20)
  • Battle of Fleurus (1622)
  • Battle of Stadtlohn (1623)
• Danish Intervention
  • Battle of Dessau Bridge (1626)
  • Battle of Lutter am Barenberge (1626)
  • Battle of Stralsund (1628)
  • Battle of Wolgast (1628)
• Swedish Intervention
  • Battle of Frankfurt on the Oder (1631)
  • Battle of Magdeburg (1631)
  • Battle of Werben (1631)
  • Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)
  • Battle of Rain (1632)
  • Battle of Fürth (1632)
  • Battle of Lützen (1632)
  • Battle of Oldendorf (1633)
  • Battle of Nördlingen (1634)
• Swedish-French Intervention
  • Battle of Wittstock (1636)
  • Battle of Rheinfelden (1638)
  • Battle of Breisach (1638)
  • Battle of Chemnitz (1639)
  • Battle of Breitenfeld (1642)
  • Battle of Rocroi (1643)
  • Battle of Tuttlingen (1643)
  • Battle of Freiburg (1644)
  • Battle of Jüterbog (1644)
  • Battle of Jankau (1645)
  • Battle of Mergentheim (1645)
  • Battle of Nördlingen (1645)
  • Battle of Zusmarshausen (1648)
  • Battle of Prague (1648)
  • Battle of Lens (1648)
• Post-bellum Period
  • Battle of Arras (1654)
  • Battle of Valenciennes (1656)
  • Battle of the Dunes (1658)

The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Events March 8 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery). ... November 21 is the 325th day of the year (326th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... The Battle of Záblatí, in some sources also battle of Sablat, occurred on 10 June 1619 during the Bohemian period of the Thirty Years War. ... Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. ... June 10 is the 161st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (162nd in leap years), with 204 days remaining. ... The Battle of Věstonice, or Battle of Wisternitz, was fought on August 5, 1619 between a Bohemian force and an Austrian army under Dampierre. ... Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. ... August 5 is the 217th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (218th in leap years), with 148 days remaining. ... The Battle of White Mountain, November 8, 1620 (Bílá hora is the name of White Mountain in Czech) was an early battle in the Thirty Years War in which an army of 20,000 Bohemians and mercenaries under Christian of Anhalt were routed by 25,000 men of the... The Battle of Wiesloch was fought on April 27, 1622, near the German village of Wiesloch, south of Heidelberg, between a Protestant army under Count von Mansfeld and the margrave of Baden against a Catholic army under count Tilly. ... Events January 1 - In the Gregorian calendar, January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of March 25. ... April 25 is the 115th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (116th in leap years). ... Combatants Protestants Holy Roman Empire, Catholic League Commanders Friedrich of Baden Count of Tilly, Gonzales de Córdoba Strength 14000 app. ... Events January 1 - In the Gregorian calendar, January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of March 25. ... May 6 is the 126th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (127th in leap years). ... The Battle of Höchst was fought on June 22, 1622 between Catholics and Protestants. ... Events January 1 - In the Gregorian calendar, January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of March 25. ... June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... Combatants Protestants Catholic League Commanders Graf von Mansfeld, Christian of Brunswick Gonzalez de Cordoba Strength Casualties While an allied Catholic army of Spanish and Bavarians prepared to fully occupy The Palatinate. ... Combatants Protestants Catholic League Commanders Christian of Brunswick Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly Strength 15000 app. ... Combatants Protestants Catholic League Commanders Count Ernst von Mansfeld General Albrecht von Wallenstein Strength 12,000 20,000 Casualties 4,000 dead, wounded, or captured Unknown With the entrance of King Christian IV of Denmark into the Thirty Years War in 1625, Protestant forces that had been dealt one defeat... The Battle of Lutter (Lutter am Barenberge) took place during the Thirty Years War on 27th August 1626 between the forces of the Protestant Christian IV of Denmark and those of the Catholic League. ... During the Thirty Years War the city of Magdeburg was besieged by the Holy Roman Empires Imperial Army from November 1630 to 20 May 1631 in the Sack of Magdeburg. ... Combatants Saxony Saxony Holy Roman Empire Catholic Leauge Commanders Gustavus Adolphus John George I Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly Strength 23,000 swedes, 17,000 saxons 33,000 Casualties 3500 Swedes and 2000 Saxons dead 7600 dead, 6000 captured and many recruited into the swedish army {{{notes}}} The Battle of... On April 5, 1632, Swedish troops under Gustavus Adolphus crossed the Lech river near the city Rain, Bavaria after a short battle against Tillys army during the Thirty Years War. ... The Battle of Lützen was one of the most decisive battles of the Thirty Years War. ... Combatants Sweden Saxony Holy Roman Empire Spain Commanders Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar Gustav Horn Cardinal-Infante of Spain Ferdinand of Hungary Matthias Gallas Strength 16,300 infantry 9,300 cavalry 54 guns 20,000 infantry 13,000 cavalry 32 guns Casualties 13,000–15,000 dead or wounded 3,500... The Holy Roman Emperor in Vienna, with his Saxon and Catholic allies, was contesting Northern Germany with the Protestant princes, championed by the Swedes. ... The Second Battle of Breitenfeld (October 23, 1642), also known as the First Battle of Leipzig, took place 4 miles north-east of Leipzig, Germany during the Thirty Years War. ... The Battle of Rocroi, fought May 19, 1643, resulted in a decisive victory of the French army under Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, at that time Duke of Enghien, against the Spanish army under General Francisco de Melo. ... The Battle of Freiburg, also called the Three Day Battle, took place on August 3, August 5 and August 9, 1644 as part of the Thirty Years War. ... The Battle of Jüterbog was fought in November of 1644 between Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire. ... The Battle of Jankau was fought by the Swedish army SSE of Prague in Bohemia (part of present-day Czech Republic) on February 23, 1645 during the Thirty Years War. ... This article is about the second Battle of Nördlingen fought in 1645 in Germany as part of the Thirty Years War. ... The Battle of Zusmarshausen was fought on May 7, 1648 between the Holy Roman Empire and an alliance of France and Sweden. ... The last action of the Thirty Years War. ... The Battle of Lens (August 20, 1648) was a French victory under Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé against the Spanish army under Archduke Leopold in the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). ... The Battle of Arras, fought on August 25, 1654, was a victory of the French army under Turenne against the Spanish army under Don Fernidand de Salis and Condé. According to the silent era film Cyrano de Bergerac this famous fictional personnage participated in the 1654 battle of Arras which... Combatants France England United Provinces Spain Commanders Vicomte de Turenne Don John of Austria Louis II de Condé Strength 26,000 15,000 Casualties 500 dead or wounded 2,000 dead or wounded 4,000 captured The Battle of the Dunes, fought on June 14, 1658, is also known as...

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Category:Thirty Years War

• Early modern warfare
• Rise of Sweden as a Great Power
• Magnate wars in Moldavia
• Smolensk War
• Thirty Years` War and Norway

Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... The Wikimedia Commons (also called Commons or Wikicommons) is a repository of free content images, sound and other multimedia files. ... Early modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive. ... // Charles IX Main article: Charles IX of Sweden Not till March 6, 1604, after Duke John son of John III of Sweden, had formally renounced his hereditary right to the throne, did Charles IX of Sweden begin to style himself king. ... The Moldavian Magnate Wars refer to the period at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century when the magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in the affairs of Moldavia, clashing with the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire for domination of the territory. ... The Smolensk War was a conflict fought in the years 1632- 1634 between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. ... This article concerns Norways part in the Thirty Years War (1618 to 1648). ...

References

• Langer, Herbert. "The Thirty Year's War." Poole, England: Blandford Press, 1980.
• Parker, Geoffrey. "The Thirty Years' War." London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984.
• Prinzing, Friedrich. "Epidemics Resulting from Wars." Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1916.
• Wedgwood, C. V., Kennedy, Paul. "Thirty Years War." The New York Review of Books, Inc. New York, 2005, ISBN 1590171462

External links

• The Thirty Years' War FSmitha.com
• The Thirty Years War LearningSite
• Thirty Years War Timeline
• Project "Peace of Westphalia" (among others with Essay Volumes of the 26th Exhibition of the Council of Europe "1648: War and Peace in Europe", 1998/99)
• History of the Thirty Years' War by Friedrich von Schiller at Project Gutenberg
• Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest & Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years' War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
• The Thirty Years War

Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (November 10, 1759 - May 9, 1805), usually known as Friedrich Schiller, was a German poet, philosopher, historian, and dramatist. ... Project Gutenberg (often abbreviated as PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize, archive, and distribute cultural works. ...