Aerial topdressing is the spreading of fertilisers such as superphosphate over farmland with the use of aircraft. Aerial topdressing was developed in New Zealand in the 1940s and was rapidly adopted elsewhere in the 1950s. For spraying of insecticides and fungicides by air, see crop dusting; for more general information about agricultural aircraft see aerial application. Superphosphate is a fertiliser produced by the action of concentrated Sulphuric Acid on ground phosphate rock. ... Bales of hay on a farm near Ames, Iowa A farm is the basic unit in agriculture. ... Airbus A380 An aircraft is any machine capable of atmospheric flight. ... An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that has been built or converted for agricultural use -- usually aerial spraying of pesticides or fertiliser. ... The Antonov An-2 was the first purpose-built agricultural arcraft to be mass-produced. ... Aerial application, referred to by many as crop dusting, involves spraying crops with fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides from an agricultural aircraft. ...

Cresco Top-Dressing Aircraft

James Aviation Tiger Moth at Te Papa - National Museum of New Zealand

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1181x833, 615 KB)PAC Cresco pic supplied on request by PAC and released into the Public Domain File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1181x833, 615 KB)PAC Cresco pic supplied on request by PAC and released into the Public Domain File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Origins

Other aerial applications

The first known aerial application of agricultural materials was by John Chaytor, who in 1906 spread seed over a swamped valley floor in Wairoa, New Zealand, using a hot air balloon with mobile tethers. Aerial application, referred to by many as crop dusting, involves spraying crops with fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides from an agricultural aircraft. ... Wairoa is a town in New Zealands North Island. ... Hot air balloon being inflated by its propane burners prior to a dawn launch Hot air balloons are the oldest successful human flight technology, dating back to the Montgolfier brothers invention in Annonay, France in 1783. ...

The first known use of a heavier-than-air machine occurred on 3 August 1921 when as the result of advocacy by Dr Coad, a USAAC Curtiss JN4 Jenny piloted by John MacReady was used to spread lead arsenate to kill catalpha sphinx caterpillars near Troy, Ohio in the United States. The first commercial operations were attempted in the US in 1924 and use of insecticide and fungicide for crop dusting slowly spread in the Americas and, to a lesser extent, other nations. Crop dusting poisons enjoyed a boom in the US and Europe after World War II until the environmental impact of widespread use became clear, particularly after the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring. Crop dusting was not adopted in New Zealand until after top dressing was well established. August 3 is the 215th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (216th in leap years), with 150 days remaining. ... 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1. ... Curtiss JN4 The JN series of aircraft were built by the Curtiss company of Hammondsport, New York, later the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company. ... Lead hydrogen arsenate, also called lead arsenate, acid lead arsenate or LA, chemical formula PbHAsO4, is an inorganic insecticide used primarily against the potato beetle. ... This article is about insect larvae. ... Official language(s) None Capital Columbus Largest city Columbus Largest metro area Cleveland Area  Ranked 34th  - Total 44,825 sq mi (116,096 km²)  - Width 220 miles (355 km)  - Length 220 miles (355 km)  - % water 8. ... A insecticide is a pesticide used against insects in all development forms. ... A Fungicide is one of three main methods of pest control- chemical control of fungi in this case. ... An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that has been built or converted for agricultural use -- usually aerial spraying of pesticides or fertiliser. ... Combatants Allies: Soviet Union United States United Kingdom and others Axis Powers: Germany Japan Italy and others Commanders Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Winston Churchill Adolf Hitler Hideki Tojo Benito Mussolini Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000,000 Total dead: 50,000,000 Military... Carsons Government Photo (1940s) Rachel Louise Carson (May 27, 1907 – April 14, 1964) was a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania-born zoologist and marine biologist whose landmark book, Silent Spring, is often credited with having launched the global environmental movement. ... Silent Spring was written by Rachel Carson and published in September, 1962. ...

Early suggestions

Initial interest in New Zealand concentrated on seed sowing, but much of New Zealand's central North Island farmland, given to returned servicemen after World War I, had proven deficient in trace minerals such as cobalt, copper and selenium, forcing difficult topdressing by hand in rough country, or abandoning the land for forestry. The possibility of using aircraft soon occurred. Combatants Allied Powers: British Empire France Italy Russia United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria Germany Ottoman Empire Casualties Military dead: 5 million Military dead: 4 million The First World War, also known as The Great War, The War to End All Wars, and World War I (abbreviated WWI) was... General Name, Symbol, Number cobalt, Co, 27 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 9, 4, d Appearance metallic with gray tinge Atomic mass 58. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic brown Atomic mass 63. ... SE redirects here. ... A decidous beech forest in Slovenia. ...

Spreading superphosphate by agricultural aircraft was independently suggested in 1926 by two New Zealanders, John Lambert of Hunterville and Len Daniell of Wairere. There was some publicity when in 1936 Hawkes Bay farmer Harold McHardy used a de Havilland Gypsy Moth to sow clover seed on his own land. This led the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council to decide to fund aerial sowing and topdressing trials in 1937 to prevent erosion, but little progress was made, despite strong advocacy by Doug Campbell. Superphosphate is a fertiliser produced by the action of concentrated Sulphuric Acid on ground phosphate rock. ... The Antonov An-2 was the first purpose-built agricultural arcraft to be mass-produced. ... Hawkes Bay is a region of New Zealand. ... Farmer spreading grasshopper bait in his alfalfa field. ... The De Havilland DH.60G Gipsy Moth was a variant of the DH.60 Moth powered by the De Havilland Gipsy I engine. ... Species See text Clover (Trifolium) is a genus of about 300 species of plants in the pea family Fabaceae. ... A ripe red jalapeno cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock and other particles) by the agents of wind, water or ice, by downward or down-slope movement in response to gravity or by living organisms (in the case of...

At that time it was illegal to drop anything from an aircraft, which dissuaded several advocates who felt a law change was needed before experiments could begin. Eventually Esmond Gibson would get that law change, but long before that news of early experiments was spread by a pilot for the Ministry of Works who simply took the risk of publishing an article showing he broke the law.

Alan Pritchard

The idea of spreading seed occurred to Alan Pritchard, a pilot for the New Zealand Public Works Department, as he was flying E. Madden of the Ministry of Works in a Moth, sharing grapes and throwing the seeds out of the open cockpits. A few months later, he was prevented from conducting an aerial survey in Northland when the Ministry's Miles Whitney Straight ZK-AFH was grounded by bad weather. A supervisor, J. L. Harrison, complained that Pritchard was holding back men needed to sow lupin seed. Pritchard suggested sowing the seed by air. Burying the hatchet, Harrison and Pritchard spent that evening experimenting with methods of dispersal, before settling on sewing a sack onto a piece of downpipe. The following morning, 8 March, Pritchard flew over Ninety Mile Beach while Harrison, on his signal, held the downpipe out a window and emptied the sack. They then landed and examined the spread of the seeds. It was found a distribution of 1 seed per square foot was obtained from a height of 100 - 150 feet. On Monday 10 March, they sowed 375 acres, using 2 lb/acre (224 kg/km²) instead of the 5 lb/acre (560 kg/km²) used when sowing by hand. The pair returned to examine the site at 2 weeks, 1 month and 2 years, and at all points the aerially-sown land was indistinguishable from that sown by hand. After the outbreak of World War II, he had the good fortune to retain the use of ZK-AFH, when most aircraft were impressed for war service. Alan Prichard was a pilot for the New Zealand Public Works Department from the late 1930s to mid 1950s. ... It has been suggested that Pilot (spaceflight) be merged into this article or section. ... The Miles M.11 Whitney Straight was a 2-seat light aircraft with a dual-control, side-by-side cockpit configuration developed in 1936 as a collaboration between Miles Aircraft and American-born Whitney Straight, best known as a Grand Prix motor racing driver and later an Royal Air Force... March 8 is the 67th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (68th in Leap years). ... NASA satellite photo of the Aupouri Peninsula and Ninety Mile Beach Ninety Mile Beach is a beach located on the western coast of the far north of the North Island of New Zealand. ... Combatants Allies: Soviet Union United States United Kingdom and others Axis Powers: Germany Japan Italy and others Commanders Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Winston Churchill Adolf Hitler Hideki Tojo Benito Mussolini Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000,000 Total dead: 50,000,000 Military...

Pritchard wrote up the experiment in the NZ Journal of Agriculture (vol 70 p117-120). This came to the attention of the Minister Bob Semple, who Pritchard occasionally flew as a VIP. Semple asked how Pritchard had obtained permission. Pritchard admitted he had not, and had "cribbed" back the time in the ZK-AFH's logbooks by extending the time of other flights. Semple encouraged Pritchard to continue, adding "Don't let anyone catch you, and if they do, send them to me". Pritchard conducted various trials between 1939 and 1943, adding fertiliser to the seeds, which was found to dramatically improve growth. Robert Semple (commonly known as Bob Semple, 1873 - 1955) was a union leader and later Minister of Public Works for the first Labour Government of New Zealand. ... logbook aboard the frigate Grand Turk A Logbook is a book for recording readings from the log (see also maritime log). ...

As a result of Pritchard's experiments, in 1945 the Department of Agriculture estimated aerial topdressing would cost about £4 per ton of fertiliser (on a basis of 2 cwt per acre), which was economic (in actual fact, this price turned out to be a significant overestimate). Pritchard now found an ally who could officially sanction further trials.

Doug Campbell

Doug Campbell had been suggesting the spread of both seed and fertiliser for erosion control and adding trace minerals since the 1930s. Immediately after the war, he obtained permission to build a sheet metal hopper for ZK-AFH to test the spread of blue stone crystals. In 1946 the first pure topdressing flight was conducted without seed. Mixtures of bluestone crystals, sulphate of ammonia, slaked lime and carbon black were used. The lack of a lid for the hopper initially resulted in irritating dust spreading through the aircraft in turbulence: in cold wet conditions it was necessary to heat the hopper to prevent the fertiliser coagulating, while in dry conditions the powder tended to disperse in the wind before reaching the ground. Nevertheless in July Campbell arranged for ZK-AFH to topdress 1,100 acres (4.5 km²) of a copper-deficient farm. In August 1947 trials with cobalt sulphate in liquid form were conducted on the farm of K. M. Hickson near Taumarunui, with a horseback-mounted radio used to convey results to the pilot. It was soon suggested that cobaltised superphosphate would be easier to spread, although it was felt a specialised aircraft would be needed to do this. PEL-TWA 1 mg/m³(OSHA) IDLH (NIOSH) 100 mg/m3 Flash point non flammable RTECS number GL8800000 Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Calcium hydroxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula Ca(OH)2. ... Soot, also called lampblack, Pigment Black 7, carbon black or black carbon, is a dark powdery deposit of unburned fuel residues, usually composed mainly of amorphous carbon, that accumulates in chimneys, automobile mufflers and other surfaces exposed to smoke—especially from the combustion of carbon-rich organic fuels in the... Taumarunui 38°53. ...

Campbell published his research in the New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, Volume X, 1948 as "Some observations on top dressing in New Zealand".

Convinced by the trials, Campbell formed the co-ordinating and advisory committee on aerial topdressing with representatives from the Ministry of Public Works, Department of Agriculture, Department of Air, DSIR and the Soil Conservation Council. At the committee's first meeting on 27 November 1947 it resolved to ask the Royal New Zealand Air Force for assistance. November 27 is the 331st day (332nd on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) is the air force arm of the New Zealand Defence Force. ...

The RNZAF trials

Between the second world war and the cold war, the RNZAF was a large and competent organisation without a lot of work to do. It responded enthusiastically to Campbell's suggestion, initially proposing to use Tiger Moth and DC-3 aircraft, but concerns about corrosion lead them to use "expendable" war surplus Grumman Avengers. de Havilland Tiger Moth is a trainer biplane. ... Douglas DC-3 VH-AES at Avalon in 2003. ... The Grumman TBF Avenger (designated TBM for aircraft manufactured by General Motors) was an American torpedo bomber, developed initially for the United States Navy and Marine Corps and used by a large number of air forces around the world. ...

Experiments were resumed on 5 September 1948 using a Miles Whitney Straight and three Grumman Avengers; the RNZAF put superphosphate in a converted long range fuel tank in Avenger NZ2504 and dropped it over the concrete runway at Ohakea. (NZ2504 is now preserved in the Royal New Zealand Air Force Museum). September 5 is the 248th day of the year (249th in leap years). ... 1948 (MCMXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1948 calendar). ... The Miles M.11 Whitney Straight was a 2-seat light aircraft with a dual-control, side-by-side cockpit configuration developed in 1936 as a collaboration between Miles Aircraft and American-born Whitney Straight, best known as a Grand Prix motor racing driver and later an Royal Air Force... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: very short article with no context If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. ... The Royal New Zealand Air Force Museum is primarily a museum of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, its predecessor, the New Zealand Permanent Air Force and New Zealand squadrons of the Royal Air Force. ...

The superphosphate was too powdery but a more granular form was found before final trials measuring distribution pattern of spread by air on September 16 1948. The results were considered very promising. Trials proceeded to hill country at Te Mata near Raglan, and were extended to three other sites. September 16 is the 259th day of the year (260th in leap years). ... Raglan is a seaside town and surrounding district associated with Whaingaroa Harbour (also known as Raglan Harbour) on the west coast of the Waikato region in New Zealands North Island. ...

For 1949 a Research and Development flight was formed under Stan Quill, equipped with the three Avengers and a Douglas DC-3, while instructions were sent to England to modify 2 RNZAF Miles Aerovans then on the production line to carry one-ton hoppers. A ground convoy of station wagon, car, one-ton truck, jeep, fuel tanker and radio van supported them. The 1948 fuel tank was replaced by a hopper with sides angled at 60° with a vibrating rod to loosen the superphosphate. Large-scale topdressing started on 14 March 1949 spreading clover-super mix. The "Topdress III" trials culminated on 21 May 1949 with a demonstration drop on 11 different properties close to Masterton in front of large numbers of farmers and press. These trials were calculated to have spread 2.5 cwt/acre (31,000 kg/km²) at an all-up cost of 15/-, despite the use of inappropriately over-powered combat aircraft. Further public displays were given to cabinet ministers on 30 August at Johnsonville, on 9 September at Ohakea and at a September 17 Air Force Day air show. As these trials were a resounding success, in addition to the Aerovans 12 RNZAF Bristol Freighters then under construction were modified to take superphosphate hoppers. The Douglas DC-3 is a fixed-wing, propeller-driven aircraft which revolutionized air transport in the 1930s and 1940s, and is generally regarded as one of the most significant transport aircraft ever made (also see Boeing 707 and Boeing 747). ... March 14 is the 73rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (74th in leap years) with 292 days remaining in the year. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... May 21 is the 141st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (142nd in leap years). ... Masterton is the largest town (and local government district) in the Wairarapa region in the southeastern North Island of New Zealand. ... A minister or a secretary is a politician who holds significant public office in a national or regional government. ... August 30 is the 242nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (243rd in leap years), with 123 days remaining. ... Johnsonville is a large suburb in northern Wellington, New Zealand. ... September 9 is the 252nd day of the year (253rd in leap years). ... September 17 is the 260th day of the year (261st in leap years). ... The Royal New Zealand Air Force or RNZAF is the air operations arm of the New Zealand Defence Force. ... The Bristol Type 170 Freighter was a twin-engined propeller cargo aircraft designed and built by Bristol Aeroplane Company to carry motor cars and their owners over small distances. ...

Following the successful RNZAF trials, in 1950 farmers' groups lobbied the government to have the RNZAF provide subsidised topdressing with the Bristol freighters and even advocated using large Handley Page Hastings planes. But by this time government work was being overtaken by private enterprise as ex-air force pilots bought New Zealand-built De Havilland Tiger Moth biplanes cheaply, placed a hopper in the front seat and went into business flying from the paddocks of any farmer willing to pay. The RNZAF was waking up to the "Communist threat" and preferred to concentrate upon defence and the government was reluctant to spend money or interfere with the increasing number of commercial operators. The Handley Page HP 67 Hastings was a troop-carrier and freight transport of the Royal Air Force. ... The de Havilland DH.82 Tiger Moth was a 1930s biplane designed by de Havilland and operated by the Royal Air Force and others as a primary trainer. ...

Research in other nations

Australia

The first experimental topdressing in Australia was done by a private Tiger Moth in 1948.

Great Britain

Faced with far greater difficulty of operating aircraft from small British farms, the British Government assumed topdressing aircraft would need to operate from an ordinary runway. Economies of scale then dictated using large aircraft, which would in turn have to fly higher. Accordingly in 1950 the RAF conducted trials over Scottish farm land with Avro Lincoln and Avro Lancaster bombers carrying canvas trays with 5 tons of superphosphate in 14 lb and 28 lb paper bags designed to burst on impact. These trials were a failure due to poor spread achieved from the bags. The Bristol Aeroplane Company conducted private trials on hill country in the same year with scaled-up versions of the New Zealand hoppers fitted to Bristol Freighters. The success of these trials was widely publicised through Farmers' Weekly magazine. Hopper conversions were marketed for the Freighter and also the same companies even larger Handley Page Hastings. However low capitalisation for start up costs and the difficulties of low level operation in large transports led British private industry to use smaller machines, even though they could not operate directly from farms. A line up of Avro Lincoln B.IIs (B.2) The Avro 694 Lincoln was a British 4-engined heavy bomber of World War II, first flying on June 9, 1944 and entering service in August 1945, too late to be used in action. ... The Avro Lancaster was a four-engine World War II bomber aircraft made initially by Avro for the Royal Air Force (RAF). ... Bristol Aeroplane Company logo The Bristol Aeroplane Company (formerly British and Colonial Aeroplane Company) was a major British aircraft company which, in 1959, merged with several major British aircraft companies, to become the British Aircraft Corporation and later still part of British Aerospace, now BAE Systems. ... The Handley Page HP 67 Hastings was a troop-carrier and freight transport of the Royal Air Force. ...

The Supermen - private operators

Several factors lay behind the development of aerial topdressing in the apparent backwater of New Zealand. The New Zealand public service gave its employees time and resources to pursue their ideas and publish research. Many farms included hill country, where it was impossible to spread fertiliser by truck. New Zealand farms tended to be large enough to make the costs worthwhile. High prices for lamb and wool in the early 1950s gave farmers the extra capital. World War II had left behind cheap war-surplus Tiger Moths and highly trained ex air force pilots. A civil servant or public servant is a civilian career public sector employee working for a government department or agency. ... It has been suggested that Lambing be merged into this article or section. ... See Alpaca wool, Angora wool (of rabbits) and Cashmere wool (of goats) for information about other wools. ...

The majority of the 40,000 plus New Zealanders trained by the RNZAF were aircrew, because most were sent to Europe, and served in squadrons where the ground crew were from the United Kingdom. On returning to their rural homes, many bought cheap war-surplus aircraft, particularly the Tiger Moth primary trainer, available for £100. These were used for weekend flying, but also dropping fencing, feed and people into remote areas, as well as occasionally aerial sowing and dropping rabbit poison. de Havilland Tiger Moth is a trainer biplane. ... Genera Pentalagus Bunolagus Nesolagus Romerolagus Brachylagus Sylvilagus Oryctolagus Poelagus Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae, found in many parts of the world. ...

By the end of 1949 there were five firms; Airwork had five Tiger moths, James Aviation three, Aircraft Services three, Gisborne Aerial topdressing (which was to become Field Air) had one, and Southern Scenic Airtrips had converted an Auster. In addition Wally Harding was top dressing his own property with his private Tiger Moth. Within the following five years nearly 50 other companies - mostly one-man operations - joined as competition, but when amalgamation occurred it was these pioneers who came to dominate the New Zealand industry. Auster Autocrat from 1952 For the Roman god of the south wind, see Notus. ...

Airwork(NZ)

Since 1947 Airwork (NZ) Limited had been operating Tiger Moths for rabbit killing by spreading poisoned carrots in Canterbury. In early May 1949 Charles Brazier used ZK-ASO to spread lime. Airwork was aware that Fred "Popeye" Lucas had conducted aerial seeding as well as rabbit poisoning and discussed the possibility of dropping seeds with fertiliser (as Pritchard had done) with Ces Worrell, a grain and seed merchant. He suggested spreading superphosphate alone would be more profitable, (a suggestion he may have wished he had kept to himself - the following year, Worrell started a rival firm, Aerial Sowing). Acting on Worral's suggestion, Airwork arranged a public demonstration on Sir Heaton Rhodes's property at Tai Tapu, south of Christchurch, on 27 May 1949. They advertised spreading superphosphate for £5 per ton, and several orders came from the audience. The New Zealand region of Canterbury mostly comprises the Canterbury Plains. ... Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the third largest urban area in the country. ... May 27 is the 147th day (148th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 218 days remaining. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ...

Airwork pioneered the technique of landing on the farmer's property, loading and turning the aircraft round in three or four minutes. To save time, bulk loading from a vehicle was pioneered instead of emptying bags into the hopper. For the first drop a hurriedly-converted Hupmobile was used, but this soon broke down and was replaced by a Land Rover chassis fitted with hydraulic arms. This investment was justified when Pyne Gould Guinness placed the first large contract at Christmas 1949. Airwork would go on to have a major role in the development of the Fletcher aircraft. The Hupp Motor Car Company was founded by Robert Craig Hupp, a native of Grand Rapids, Michigan, on November 8, 1908 in Detroit, Michigan, USA, and began manufacturing its first automobiles soon thereafter. ... Land Rover was the name of one of the first British civilian all-terrain utility vehicles, first produced by Rover in 1947. ...

Fieldair

Lawson Field (1896–1981), a farmer and pilot, converted one of Gisborne Aero Club's de Havilland Tiger Moths, Barbara II, so that Ken Young could drop superphosphate during the week and the club could fly the plane at weekends. The arrangement was typical of the system adopted by all early firms; a steep sided hopper was installed in the Tiger Moth's front seat, which the pilot released by pulling a lever. When the club complained the hopper could not be removed from the passenger seat without causing structural damage, Field bought Barbara II and started the Gisborne Aerial Topdressing Company on 2 August 1949. He calculated his first drop cost £2.10s. per ton of fertiliser, and he was able to charge farmers £5 per ton. In September 1949 he became the founding president of the New Zealand Aerial Work Operators' Association, later the Aviation Industry Association of New Zealand. In 1951 he renamed the company Fieldair Limited and brought in modern De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beavers, and in 1955 Lockheed Lodestars and DC-3s. Fieldair developed the tractor-mounted hopper loader, adopted throughout the industry, and became the largest topdressing firm in the country by the time of Field’s death in 1981. Gisborne is the name of a unitary authority (in this case, a region and district) in New Zealand. ... August 2 is the 214th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (215th in leap years), with 151 days remaining. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... C-FGYN Adlair Aviation Ltd. ... The Lockheed 18 Lodestar was a passenger transport aircraft of the Second World War era. ...

Fieldair's logo is a strangled goose. According to legend, a hungry Fieldair pilot flying between airstrips saw a single goose which looked like dinner. His somewhat hopeful method was to attempt to manoeuvre alongside the bird, side slip into it and grab hold. The first few attempts failed and the goose got wise. A dogfight developed, and both fliers lost altitude. A hundred feet over a gully the goose broke towards the aircraft, and hit the prop, breaking it. The pilot force landed, and concocted a suitable story of bird strike, which was sadly undone when the farmer requested the company's services, as "You blokes must have the best pilots in the country...one of your blokes chased this goose around my farm for about a half an hour. He must have just missed by inches every tree on my place. And to top it off this bloke succeeded in killing the goose and landed to pick it up". (Ewing & MacPherson, p182). Genera Anser Branta Chen Cereopsis Cnemiornis(extinct) † see also: Swan, Duck Anatidae Goose (plural geese) is the general English name for a considerable number of birds, belonging to the family Anatidae. ...

Wanganui Aero Work

Wally Harding, a pioneer Waiouru farmer, converted his Tiger Moth into a top dresser in 1949 to use on his own not particularly productive high country station. The following year he founded Wanganui Aero Work Ltd. By 1954 the company added the first PAC Fletcher to its five Tiger Moths. It also operated Beavers, Ceres, Cessna 180/185s, Piper PA-25 Pawnees, Piper Cubs and Cessna AgWagons, but eventually standardised on Fletchers for its fixed-wing fleet, purchasing eight PAC Crescos when these were introduced. In 2004 the family business was bought out by Ravensdown Fertiliser Cooperative, although Wally’s son still flies for it. Waiouru is a small town in the centre of the North Island of New Zealand. ... Wanganui is an urban area and district on the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand. ... PAC Fletcher is an Agricultural aircraft, made in New Zealand, together with the Auster Agricola, the first designed for aerial topdressing. ... The Cessna 180 is a general aviation light aircraft produced by the Cessna Aircraft Company of Wichita, Kansas. ... Cessna 185 (C-FFXO) Skywagon II at Cambridge Bay Airport, Nunavut, Canada The Cessna 185 also know as the Skywagon is a six seat, single engined, general aviation light aircraft. ... The PA-25 Pawnee was a very popular agricultural aircraft produced by Piper Aircraft. ... A Piper J-3 Cub at Embrun, Ontario, August 2004 The Piper J-3 ‘Cub’ was a small, light, and simple aircraft built between 1938 and 1947. ... Cessna Agwagon The Cessna Agwagon is a small crop dusting aircraft. ... A PAC Cresco in action The PAC Cresco is a turbo-prop powered derivative of the FU-24 PAC Fletcher aerial topdressing aircraft, manufactured by the Pacific Aerospace Corporation in Hamilton, New Zealand. ...

James Aviation

Ossie James was another pilot and farmer who started with a Tiger Moth salvaged from floodwaters in 1948 and progressed to owning the largest fleet of Fletchers in the country. James Aviation flew a number of DC3s and Lodestars as well as Fletchers. James was heavily involved in the New Zealand International Field Days, the Salvation Army, and Waikato Aero Club. Ossie James was made a Distinguished Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit in 2004. Shield of The Salvation Army The Salvation Army is a Protestant evangelical Christian denomination founded in 1865 by Methodist ministers William Booth and Catherine Booth. ... Waikato is the name of a region in the North Island of New Zealand. ... Companions Badge of the New Zealand Order of Merit The New Zealand Order of Merit is an order of chivalry established on 30 May 1996 by Elizabeth II. The Order includes five classes in civil and military divisions, in order of seniority: Principal Companion (PCNZM) (formerly Knight or Dame...

The aircraft

By 1952 there were 38 firms in the business in New Zealand, operating 149 aircraft, of which 138 were Tiger Moths. A smattering of higher powered de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beavers were the only modern types. By 1956 there were 182 aerial topdressing Tiger Moths but it was obvious the lightweight Tiger Moths would need to be replaced. At the beginning of the 1950s there were no specialist designs for even crop dusters, due to the proliferation of World War II surplus trainers. But for topdressing something larger and more robust was needed. C-FGYN Adlair Aviation Ltd. ...

War surplus

Conversions of more robust World War II aircraft started. In 1954 the RNZAF had conducted some further topdressing tests at Masterton using a Bristol Freighter fitted with three 2 ton hoppers, though to appease higher command the aircraft was given civilian registration ZK-BEV and hired to the private company "Industrial Flying Limited". These trials lead to large numbers of heavy twin-engined types, such as Douglas DC3s and Lockheed Lodestars being converted for topdressing. The North American Harvard and its Australian-built counterpart, the CAC Wirraway were adapted by rebuilds, the Wirraway into the CAC Ceres. Bits of Harvards were used by Luigi Pellerini to make most of the bizarre twin-tailed cockpit-over-the-engine Bennett Airtruck. Flight tested at Te Kuiti in 1950, surprisingly this aircraft not only had a long and successful career but was put into production (as an all new built aircraft) in Australia, becoming the Transavia Airtruck, and later played a bitsa role in the Mad Max movies. Combatants Allies: Soviet Union United States United Kingdom and others Axis Powers: Germany Japan Italy and others Commanders Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Winston Churchill Adolf Hitler Hideki Tojo Benito Mussolini Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000,000 Total dead: 50,000,000 Military... Masterton is the largest town (and local government district) in the Wairarapa region in the southeastern North Island of New Zealand. ... The Bristol Type 170 Freighter was a twin-engined propeller cargo aircraft designed and built by Bristol Aeroplane Company to carry motor cars and their owners over small distances. ... The T-6 Texan was a single-engine, advanced trainer aircraft designed by North American Aviation and used to train fighter pilots of the USAAF, US Navy, Royal Air Force and other air forces of the British Commonwealth during World War II. The Texan is known by a variety of... The CAC Wirraway was a World War II training and fighter aircraft manufactured in Australia between 1939 and 1946. ... CAC may refer to: Category:Science CaC2 or Calcium carbide Citric acid cycle Category:Society The Codex Alimentarius Commission The CAC 40 stock market index The Call Aircraft Company The Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation Call Admission Control The Common Access Card - The U.S. Department of Defense Geneva Convention Identification Card. ... Te Kuiti viewed from the south-west as SH3 climbs out of the town. ... Country of origin: Australia First Flown: 1965 Description: Agricultural/utility monoplane Power plant: 1 X 300-hp continental flat 6 Range: 1297km 700nm Length: 6. ... Mad Max is an Australian apocalyptic science fiction film starring Mel Gibson. ...

Existing designs

The DHC Beaver was purchased in numbers and there were abortive plans to build it under license in New Zealand, but its high wing and bulky cabin were unsuited to the role. In the UK Miles Aerovans proved underpowered. In the Eastern Block, where economy mattered less, the Antonov An-2 was used for the role. Private Lithuanian An-2 Another private An-2 in the UK Private An-2 in Warsaw The Antonov An-2 (Russian nickname: кукуру́зник (kukuruznik) also nicknamed Annushka; NATO code name Colt) is an extremely durable, light, single-engine biplane which first flew in 1947. ...

Developing specialist machines

Entirely new designs were clearly needed in Australasia. In Britain Auster produced the Auster Agricola and Percival the Percival EP-9 for the New Zealand market, both robust but primitive fabric covered aircraft, while in Australia the small but more advanced Yeoman Cropmaster was developed. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Oceania. ... The Auster B8 Agricola was a commerically unsuccessful British agricultural aircraft designed for the aerial topdressing market which opened up in New Zealand in the early 1950s. ...

In the United States, Fletcher Aviation Corporation was persuaded by a delegation of New Zealanders to develop an aircraft for the New Zealand market, and Jim Thorpe adapted a design for the FD25 Defender light attack aircraft into the Fletcher Fu24, a stressed skin monoplane with a high lift wing, more than three times the load of the Tiger Moth, and the cockpit located well forward, ahead of the hopper, giving the pilot all round view. This – with a few changes, such as an enclosed cockpit - turned out to be the winning formula and orders soon reached three figures. Cable Price Corporation funded two prototypes with the New Zealand Meat Producers Board acting as financial guarantor; Gibson having brow beaten a reluctant Fletcher board into building a prototype, Airparts was formed to assemble the American kits. The first prototype was flown in America in June 1954, the second in New Zealand in September 1954 and received type approval in May 1955. A hundred Fletcher kits were delivered to New Zealand that year. Airparts bought out the rights and continued development locally. PAC Fletcher is an Agricultural aircraft, made in New Zealand, together with the Auster Agricola, the first designed for aerial topdressing. ...

Specialist crop dusters such as the Schweizer Agcat emerged in America in the mid 1950s, designed for the flat mid west. These generally had poorer forward vision and lesser payload to weight ratios than the Fletcher, which continued to dominate the New Zealand market - however in places where aircraft primarily were used to drop insecticide, these American designs were superior.

Pacific Aerospace

The Fletcher was responsible for starting New Zealand's small aircraft building industry. Having taken over from Air Parts and AESL, Pacific Aerospace is the manufacturer of the PAC Fletcher and the similar but larger and turboprop powered PAC Cresco, as well as the PAC 750XL and PAC CT/4 Airtrainer. Pacific Aerospace of Hamilton is New Zealand's largest aircraft manufacturer. Fletchers and Crescos have been exported widely to Africa, the Middle East, and South America as well as Australia. Differences between the demands of American and European markets, as well as entry barriers, have ensured the Antipodean style of topdresser did not compete with the cockpit behind the hopper designs of American manufacturers. Pacific Aerospace Corporation (PAC) is an aircraft manufacturing company based in Hamilton, New Zealand. ... A utility aircraft, combing the engine and wings of the PAC Cresco with a new large fuselage and modified tail, the PAC 750 is a conventional metal monoplane with tricycle undercarriage; all versions to date have been powered by a 750 hp PT6A turboprop. ... The Pacific Aerospace Corporation CT/4 Airtrainer series are all-metal construction, single-engine, two place side-by-side seating, fully aerobatic, piston engined, basic training aircraft manufactured in Hamilton, New Zealand. ... Hamilton is New Zealands fourth-largest metropolitan area. ... For other uses, see Africa (disambiguation). ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... Antipodes (from Greek anti- opposed and pous foot) means diametrically opposed, and more specifically refers to the opposite side of the Earth, the region of the antipodal point, from where one is located. ...

The mature industry

By 1958 there were 73 aerial topdressing firms in New Zealand, flying 279 aircraft - but although the amount of superphospate dropped and the area it fell on would continue to increase, from now on the numbers of companies, aircraft, and pilots dropped, as the larger more expensive Fletchers came to dominate the market and the one man companies that began in the 1940s were amalgamated.

By 1965, a million tons of superphospate was being dropped annually, spread over 9 million acres (36,000 km²). The amount an aircraft dropped had increased from 2.5 tons to 8 tons and there were 10,000 privately owned airstrips for topdressing in New Zealand. Other work was also done by agricultural aircraft, as in foreign countries, particularly outside the February to May prime season; clover seed is sown and spraying is carried out with insecticides, fungicides, and weed killers as well as general utility work. Aerial Topdressing has been attributed with vastly increasing agricultural production - in New Zealand alone, sheep numbers increased from 40 million to over 70 million, the majority of the increase being attributed to the increased feed superphosphate made available. A insecticide is a pesticide used against insects in all development forms. ... A Fungicide is one of three main methods of pest control- chemical control of fungi in this case. ...

Environmental impact

Ironically, given the industry was started by government research aimed at soil conservation, a number of negative impacts have emerged. The two major criticisms are the run off of fertiliser into streams and waterways which encourages marine plant growth, leading to choking of the waterways and altering the fresh water ecosystem, disadvantaging many fish, (and frustrating anglers). To minimise impact, topdressing is now prohibited within certain distances of water. The second impact is less direct. By enabling sheep to be run profitably on steep hillsides, the topdressing industry stopped reforestation of otherwise uneconomic land, contributing to the erosion it was originally designed to prevent. Some conservation ecologists have been concerned about the Amazon rainforest. ... The Angler (Lophius piscatorius) The angler, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, or sea-devil (Lophius piscatorius), is a fish well known off the coasts of Great Britain and much of Europe. ...

The mining of superphosphate from guano deposits on the tiny South Pacific island of Nauru temporarily made the island one of the richest nations in the world, per capita, but removed most of the soil from the island, creating a pitted moonscape. The Chincha guano islands in Peru. ...

An unsuccessful topdressing plant is the only business other than tourism ever attempted on the volcanic White Island. The plant was largely destroyed in an eruption. Whakaari/White Island is one of two New Zealand islands known as White Island. ...

See also

• Crop dusting

An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that has been built or converted for agricultural use -- usually aerial spraying of pesticides or fertiliser. ...

References

• Alexander, G. & J. S. Tullett, The Super Men. A.H. & A.W. Reed, Wellington, 1967 (a popular, anecdotal history of the early years of top dressing)
• D.A. Campbell Some observations on Top dressing in New Zealand, New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology Volume X 1948 (the article which started the industry).
• Ewing, Ross and MacPherson, Ross The History of New Zealand Aviation, Heinemann, 1986
• Geelen, Janic The Topdressers NZ Aviation Press. Te Awamutu, 1983 (a more comprehensive history of New Zealand top dressing, mostly regional, with separate chapters about matters such as aircraft development).
• Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Topdressing Government Press, Wellington, 1973. (a brief manual aimed largely at farmers).

External links

• Geelen, Janic. 'Field, Lawson Lysnar Copland 1896 - 1981'. Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, updated 7 July 2005
• Encyclopedia history of Topdressing to the mid 1960s
• New Zealand topdressing history
• Interview with pioneering top dressing pilot
• White Island History
  • Volcano Web Cam – The inspiration for Skull Island's fauna?