The slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. The first main route passed through the Sahara, tying in to the Arab slave trade. After the European Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western conception of slavery as an institution of African-descended slaves and non-African slave owners. Despite its illegality, slavery continues in some parts of the world, including Africa. This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Satellite image The Sahara (Arabic: , aá¹£-á¹£aḥrā´ al-kabÄ«r, The Great Desert, ( )) is the worlds largest hot desert, and second largest desert after Antarctica. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Islam and slavery. ... The so-called Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships were traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. ... The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the colonies of the New World that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. ... Slave redirects here. ... Slave redirects here. ...

Elikia M’bokolo, April 1998, Le Monde diplomatique. Quote:"The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"^[1] This monthly magazine is not to be mistaken for the daily Le Monde. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed Le Diplo by its French readers) is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics, culture, and current affairs. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Nations with a Muslim majority appear in green, while nations that are approximately 50% Muslim appear yellow. ... Location of the Red Sea The Red Sea is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ... Swahili (also called Kiswahili; see Kiswahili for a discussion of the nomenclature) is an agglutinative Bantu language widely spoken in East Africa. ... The Great Mosque of Djenné, founded in 800, an important trading base, now a World Heritage Site Trans-Saharan trade, refers to trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. ...

Slavery within Africa

13th century Africa - simplified map of the main states, kingdoms and empires

In most African societies, there was very little difference between the free peasants and the feudal vassal peasants. Vassals of the Songhay Empire were used primarily in agriculture; they paid tribute to their masters in crop and service but they were slightly restricted in custom and convenience. These non-free people were more an occupational caste, as their bondage was relative.^[2]. Image File history File links Africa_en. ... Image File history File links Africa_en. ... From the early 15th to the late 16th century, the Songhai Empire was one of the largest African empires in history. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social classification, that evolved due to the enormous diversity in India (where all three primary races met, not by forced slavery but by immigration). ... Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will by the threat of destitution, detention, violence (including death), or other extreme hardship to themselves, or to members of their families. ...

There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Ashanti of Ghana and the Yoruba of Nigeria had economies largely depending on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as intermediaries or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans. Extenuating circumstances demanding exploration are the tremendous efforts European officials in Africa used to install rulers agreeable to their interests. They would actively favor one African group against another to deliberately ignite chaos and continue their slaving activities.^[3]. For other uses, see Ashanti (disambiguation). ... The Yoruba (Yorùbá in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in West Africa. ... The Imbangala or Mbangala were 17th century groups of Angolan warriors and marauders, often confused with the Jaga. ... The Nyamwezi (originally and also Wanyamwezi) are the second largest of over 120 ethnic groups in Tanzania. ...

"Slavery", as it is often referred to by people, in African cultures was generally more like indentured servitude: "slaves" were not made to be chattel of other men, nor enslaved for life. African "slaves" were paid wages and were able to accumulate property. They often bought their own freedom and could then achieve social promotion -just as freedman in ancient Rome- some even rose to the status of kings (e.g. Jaja of Opobo and Sunni Ali Ber). Similar arguments were used by Western slave owners during the time of abolition, for example by John Wedderburn in Wedderburn v. Knight, the case that ended legal recognition of slavery in Scotland in 1776. Regardless of the legal options open to slave owners, rational cost-earning calculation and/or voluntary adoption of moral restraints often tended to mitigate (except with traders, who preferred to weed out the worthless weak individuals) the actual fate of slaves throughout history. An Indentured servant is an unfree labourer under contract to work (for a specified amount of time) for another person, often without any pay, but in exchange for accommodation, food, other essentials and/or free passage to a new country. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... ... Sonni Ali (1464-1492) was the first great king of the Songhai Empire, and the 15th ruler of the Sonni dynasty. ... James ( 1495–1533), John ( 1505–1556) and Robert Wedderburn ( 1510– 1555) were Scottish religious reformers and poets. ... It is sometimes said that slavery at common law did not exist, often on the basis of pronouncements such as those attributed (incorrectly) to Lord Mansfield, that the air of England is too pure for any slave to breathe. ... This article is about the country. ...

In Senegambia, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the western Sudan, including Ghana (750-1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275-1591), about a third of the population were slaves. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon, the Igbo and other peoples of the lower Niger, the Kongo, and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe of Angola. Among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of slaves. The population of the Kanem (1600–1800) was about a third-slave. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in the northern Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. It is estimated that up to 90% of the population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved.^{[4][5][6][7][8][9]} The name also refers to the geographic region around the two countries, covering the watershed of the Senegal River and Gambia River. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ( â–¶ (help· info)), the submission to God) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions and the worlds second-largest religion. ... Some of the cities in Mali which were under the control of the Bambara Empire. ... The Songhai Empire, (ca. ... The Duala (or Douala) are an ethnic group of Cameroon. ... The Igbo, sometimes (especially formerly) referred to as the Ibo/Ebo, are an ethnic group in West Africa numbering in the tens of millions. ... This article is about the river. ... The Kingdom of Congo (now usually rendered as Kingdom of Kongo to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations) Capital Mbanza-Kongo, Angola; re-named São Salvador in the late 16th century; re-named back to Mbanza-Kongo in 1975 Religion Christianity with some traditional practices Government Monarchy... External links Chokwe people African Art : Chokwe Chokwe, Bantu art Categories: Ethnic group stubs | Chokwe | Ethnic groups of Africa | Ethnic groups of the Democratic Republic of the Congo ... For other uses, see Ashanti (disambiguation). ... The Yoruba (Yorùbá in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in Africa; the majority of them speak the Yoruba language (èdèe Yorùbá; èdè = language). ... The Kanem Empire existed in modern Chad and Libya. ... The Bornu Empire (1396-1893) was a pre-colonial African state of Niger from 1389 to 1893. ... The Fulani War of 1804-1810, also known as the Fulani Holy War or Jihad of Usman dan Fodio, was a military conquest in present day Nigeria and Cameroon. ... Location of Sokoto in Nigeria, Sokoto is a city located in the extreme northwest of Nigeria, near to where the Sokoto River and Rima River meet. ... The Hausa are a Sahelian people chiefly located in the West African regions of northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger. ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ... The Swahili are a people and culture found on the coast of East Africa, mainly the coastal regions and the islands of Kenya and Tanzania, and north Mozambique. ... Map of Zanzibars main island Zanzibar is part of Tanzania Coordinates: , Country Tanzania Islands Unguja and Pemba Capital Zanzibar City Settled AD 1000 Government  - Type semi-autonomous part of Tanzania  - President Amani Abeid Karume Area  - Both Islands  637 sq mi (1,651 km²) Population (2004)  - Both Islands 1,070...

Slavery in Ethiopia

Ethiopian slavery was essentially domestic. Slaves thus served in the houses of their masters or mistresses, and were not employed to any significant extent for productive purposes, slaves were thus regarded as second-class members of their owners' family^[10], and were fed, clothed and protected. Women were taken as sex slaves. They generally roamed around freely and conducted business as free people. They had complete freedom of religion and culture.^[11] First attempt to abolish slavery was made by Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855-1868)^[12], although slave trade was not abolished completely until 1923 with Ethiopia's ascension to the League of Nations.^[13] Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.^[14] Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the Italian invasion in October 1935, when was abolished by order of the Italian occupying forces.^[15] In response to pressure by Western Allies of World War II Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and involuntary servitude after regained its independence in 1942.^[16][17] On August 26, 1942 Haile Selassie issued a proclamation outlawing slavery.^[18] The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (Ityopiya, Amharic ኢትዮጵያ) is a country situated in the Horn of Africa. ... Sex Slaves (Sex Slave$) is a 2005 documentary by Ric Esther Bienstock which was created in association with CBC, Channel 4 and Canal D. It provides a first hand account of international human trafficking by going to the countries such as Moldova and Ukraine where girls are recruited, then following... Tewodros II (Geez ቴዎድሮስ, also known as Theodore II) (1818 -suicide April 13, 1868) was an Emperor of Ethiopia (1855 - 1868). ... 1939–1941 semi-official emblem Anachronous world map in 1920–1945, showing the League of Nations and the world Capital Not applicable¹ Language(s) English, French and Spanish Political structure International organization Secretary-general  - 1920–1933 Sir James Eric Drummond  - 1933–1940 Joseph Avenol  - 1940–1946 Seán Lester Historical... This article is about the independent states that comprised the Allies. ... is the 238th day of the year (239th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1942 (MCMXLII) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Haile Selassie Haile Selassie (Power of Trinity) (July 23, 1892 – August 27, 1975) was the last Emperor (1930–1936; 1941–1974) of Ethiopia, and is a religious symbol in the Rastafarian movement. ...

Slavery in Somalia

The Bantus are the descendants of people from various ethnic groups in what is modern-day Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique who were brought to Somalia as slaves in the 19th century. It is estimated that the Bantu in Somalia number around 600,000 out of a total population of over 11 million. Contrary to the Somali, who are for the most part nomadic herders, the Bantu are mainly sedentary farmers. Bantus have darker skin and are shorter and more muscular with broader features and kinkier hair than the Somalis. During the Somali Civil War, many Bantu were evicted from their farms by various armed factions of Somali clans.^[19] Bantu farmers near Kismaayo The Somali Bantu (also called Jarir, Jareer, Wagosha or Mushunguli) are an ethnic minority group in Somalia which is largely inhabited by Somali people. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Somali Civil War is an armed conflict in Somalia that started in 1988. ... This 2002 CIA map shows the distribution of Somali clan populations across the Somali homelands, and their percentages within Somalia: Hawiye (25%), Isaaq (22%), Darod (20%), Rahanweyn (17%), Dir (7%), Digil (3%), and ethnic minorities (6%) Somali clan refers to the clan grouping of the Somali people. ...

Slavery in North Africa

The medieval slave trade in Europe was mainly to the East and South: Byzantine Empire and the Muslim World were the destinations, pagan Central and Eastern Europe an important source.^[20][21] Slavery in medieval Europe was so common that the Roman Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it—or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands was prohibited at, for example, the Council of Koblenz in 922, the Council of London in 1102, and the Council of Armagh in 1171.^[22] Because of religious constraints, the slave trade was monopolised by Iberian Jews (known as Radhanites) who were able to transfer the slaves from pagan Central Europe through Christian Western Europe to Muslim countries in Al-Andalus and Africa.^[23] So many Slaves were enslaved for so many centuries that the very name 'slave' derived from their name; not only in English, but in other European languages and in Arabic.^[24] Middle age is the period of life beyond young adulthood but before the onset of old age. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... Byzantine redirects here. ... Nations with a Muslim majority appear in green, while nations that are approximately 50% Muslim appear yellow. ... Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... Eastern Europe is a concept that lacks one precise definition. ... Slavery in medieval Europe was the keeping of people in slavery in Europe during the Middle Ages. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Radhanites (also Radanites, Arabic al-Radhaniyya) The Radhanites were a medieval group or guild of Jewish merchants. ... Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ... A current understanding of Western Europe. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... The Buxton Memorial Fountain, celebrating the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1834, London. ...

Mamluks were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th century Baghdad. Over time they became a powerful military caste, and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt in the from 1250-1517. From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk origin. White slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corp of troops eventually revolting in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty.^[25] An Ottoman Mamluk, from 1810 Mamluks (or Mameluks) (the Arabic word usually translates as owned, singular: مملوك plural: مماليك) comprised slave soldiers used by the Muslim Caliphs and the Ottoman Empire, and who on more than one occasion seized power for themselves. ... Wiktionary has related dictionary definitions, such as: slave Slave may refer to: Slavery, where people are owned by others, and live to serve their owners without pay Slave (BDSM), a form of sexual and consenual submission Slave clock, in technology, a clock or timer that synchrnonizes to a master clock... A Norwegian soldier (a Corporal, armed with an MP-5) A soldier is a person who has enlisted with, or has been conscripted into, the armed forces of a sovereign country and has undergone training and received equipment to defend that country or its interests. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... For main article see: Caliphate The Caliph (pronounced khaleef in Arabic) is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Sharia. ... The Ayyubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Egypt, Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Mashriq Dynasties  Maghrib Dynasties  The Abbasid Caliphate Abbasid (Arabic: , ) is the dynastic name generally given to the caliph of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Arab Empire, that overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all but Spain. ... As a means of recording the passage of time the 9th century was the century that lasted from 801 to 900. ... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social classification, that evolved due to the enormous diversity in India (where all three primary races met, not by forced slavery but by immigration). ... The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Sultanate المماليك البحرية was a Mamluk dynasty of Kipchak Turk origin that ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1382 when they were succeeded by the Burji dynasty, another group of Mamluks. ... Kipchaks (also Kypchaks, Qipchaqs) are an ancient Turkic people, first mentioned in the historical chronicles of Central Asia in the 1st millennium BC. Their language was also known as Kipchak. ... Whites redirects here. ... For the term Caucasian referring to all white people, see Caucasian race. ... The Burji dynasty ruled Egypt from 1382 until 1517. ...

According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. The coastal villages and towns of Italy, Portugal, Spain and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by them and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by its inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman Barbarossa ("Redbeard"), and his older brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis and Koca Murat Reis.^[26][27] This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Islam and slavery. ...  Northern Africa (UN subregion)  geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. ... Motto دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1683, see: list of territories Capital Söğüt (1299–1326) Bursa (1326–1365) Edirne (1365–1453) Ä°stanbul (1453–1922) Government Monarchy Sultans  - 1281–1326 (first) Osman I  - 1918–22 (last) Mehmed VI Grand Viziers  - 1320... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... This is a list of islands in the Mediterranean Sea: // == Australia is the biggest island!! == This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... 1600 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha (Turkish: Barbaros Hayreddin PaÅŸa or Hızır Hayreddin PaÅŸa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the rank of Pasha and becoming the Kaptan-ı Derya (Fleet Admiral) of the Ottoman Navy) (c. ... Baba Aruj Aruj, turkish Oruç (c. ... Turgut Reis Turgut Reis (1485-1565) was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral as well as Bey of Algiers; Beylerbey of the Mediterranean; and first Bey later Pasha of Tripoli. ... Dragut (1514-1565) Ottoman, Turkish admiral known in Turkey as Torgut Reis. ... KurtoÄŸlu Muslihiddin Reis (1487-1535 ca. ... KurtoÄŸlu Muslihiddin Reis (1487-1535 ca. ... Göke (1495) was the flagship of Kemal Reis Kemal Reis (circa 1451-1511) was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral. ... Salih Reis (1488 ca. ... Murat Reis Mosque in Rhodes Murat Reis the Older (Turkish: ) was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral. ...

In 1544, Khair ad Din captured the Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners in the process, and deported to slavery some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population.^[28] In 1551, Dragut enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. When pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy in 1554 they took an 7,000 slaves. In 1555, Turgut Reis sailed to Corsica and ransacked Bastia, taking 6000 prisoners. In 1558 Barbary corsairs captured the town of Ciutadella, destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and carried off 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves.^[29] In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores of the province of Granada, Spain, and captured the coastal settlements in the area like Almuñécar, along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates frequently attacked the Balearic islands, resulting in many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches being erected. The threat was so severe that Formentera became uninhabited.^[30][31] Khair ad Din A statue in Barbaros Park near the ferry stop in BeÅŸiktaÅŸ Khair ad Din (circa 1475-1546) was an Ottoman-Turkish admiral and privateer who served in the Ottoman Empire and in the Barbary Coast. ... The island of Ischia near Naples, Italy. ... Slave redirects here. ... Lipari Castle above the town of Lipari. ... Gozo (Maltese: Għawdex) is an island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea, the island is part of the Southern European country Malta and is the second largest after the island of Malta itself within the archipelago. ... Province of Foggia Vieste is a town and comune in the province of Foggia in the Apulia region of southeast Italy. ... For other uses, see Corsica (disambiguation). ... Location within France Bastia (French & Corsican: Bastia), is a town and commune of northern Corsica, in France. ... Ciudadella, Minorca Ciutadella (Spanish: Ciudadela) is town on the western side of Minorca. ... This article is about fatal harm. ... Location of Istanbul on the Bosphorus Strait, Turkey Coordinates: , Country Turkey Region Province Istanbul Founded 667 BC as Byzantium Roman/Byzantine period AD 330 as Constantinople Ottoman period 1453 as Constantinople (internationally) and various other names in local languages Turkish Republic period 1923 as Constantinople, officially renamed as Istanbul in... For other uses, see Granada (disambiguation). ... Almuñécar Playa Velilla Promenade and Hotel Helios, Playa San Cristobal, Almuñécar Excavated ruins of the Phoenecian fish salting factory within the Majuelo Park The Roman aqueduct at Torrecuevas near the source of the Rio Verde about 4 km north of Almuñécar The Roman aqueduct in the Rio... Capital Palma de Mallorca Official languages Catalan and Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 17th  4,992 km²  1. ... Flag of Formentera Formentera is the smallest and southernmost island of the Illes Pitiüses group (which includes Eivissa (Ibiza) and Formentera) and belongs to the Balearic Islands autonomous community (Spain). ...

Sahrawi-Moorish society in Northwest Africa was traditionally (and still is, to some extent) stratified into several tribal castes, with the Hassane warrior tribes ruling and extracting tribute - horma - from the subservient Berber-descended znaga tribes. The so-called Haratin lower class, largely sedentary oasis-dwelling black people, have been considered natural slaves in Sahrawi-Moorish society.^[32][33][34] A map showing Northwest Africa Northwest Africa is the northwestern part of Africa. ... The Hassane is a name for the traditionally dominant warrior tribes of the Sahrawi-Moorish areas of present-day Mauritania and Western Sahara. ... The horma was a tribute paid by subservient tribes to their protectors in traditional Sahrawi-Moorish society in todays Mauritania and Western Sahara in North Africa. ... Languages Berber languages Religions Islam (mostly Sunni), Christianity (mostly Kabyle catholic) Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. ... The Znaga or Zenaga tribes were at the bottom of Sahrawi-Moorish society in todays Mauritania and Western Sahara in North Africa. ... The Haratin or Harratin are an ethnic group in the Sahara. ... For the English rock band, see Oasis (band). ... This article is about the color black; for other uses, see Black (disambiguation). ...

Slaves taken from Africa

Trans Saharan trade

Main article Arab slave trade

The very earliest external slave trade was the trans-Saharan slave trade. Although there had long been some trading up the Nile River and very limited trading across the western desert, the transportation of large numbers of slaves did not become viable until camels were introduced from Arabia in the 10th century. By this point, a trans-Saharan trading network came into being to transport slaves north. It has been estimated that from the 10th to the 19th century some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.^[35] Frequent intermarriages meant that the slaves were assimilated in North Africa. Unlike in the Americas, slaves in North Africa were mainly servants and soldiers rather than labourers, and a greater number of females than males were taken, who were often employed as servants for the women of harems.^[36] It was also not uncommon to turn male slaves, both African and European, into eunuchs to serve as guardians to the harems.^[37] The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672-1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission.^[38] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Islam and slavery. ... Slave redirects here. ... The slave trade means a trade in human beings treated as objects of commerce. ... There is also Nile, a death metal band from South Carolina, USA. The Nile in Egypt Length 6 695 km Elevation of the source 1 134 m Average discharge 2 830 m³/s Area watershed 3 400 000 km² Origin Africa Mouth the Mediterranean Basin countries Uganda - Sudan - Egypt The... For other uses, see Camel (disambiguation). ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... The Great Mosque of Djenné, founded in 800, an important trading base, now a World Heritage Site Trans-Saharan trade, refers to trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. ... Not to be confused with Intermarriage. ... World map showing the Americas CIA political map of the Americas in an equal-area projection The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the continents of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions. ... A servant is a person who is hired to provide regular household or other duties, and receives compensation. ... Manual labour (or manual labor) is physical work done with the hands, especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking, road building, or any other field where the work may be considered physically arduous, and which has as a profitable objective, usually the production of goods. ... For other uses, see Harem (disambiguation). ... European illustration of a Eunuch (1749) Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial Palace, 1912. ... Coming from the Arab tradition, the harîm حريم (compare haram) is the part of the household forbidden to male strangers. ... Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty (1675-1727) was a Moroccan ruler. ... Black Guard (in Arabic, Abid, from a root meaning slave) were the corps of negro slave-soldiers assembled by the Alaouite sultan of Morocco, Mawlay Ismail (reigned 1672-1727). ...

Indian Ocean trade

13th century slave market in the Yemen

The trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean also has a long history beginning with the control of sea routes by Afro-Arab traders in the ninth century. It is estimated that only a few thousand slaves were taken each year from the Red Sea and Indian Ocean coast. They were sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands per year were being taken.^[39]. The majority of the Arabs responsible for the slave trade in East Africa were blacks themselves. Afro-Arabs were Africans who had adopted Arab culture and language. ^[40] Image File history File links Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris. ... Image File history File links Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris. ... Majed Abdullah Afro-Arab refers to a people identified as having mixed African and Arab origins, and whose native language is Arabic. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... This article is about crop plantations. ...

David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade: "To overdraw its evils is a simple impossibility.... We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path. [Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead.... We came upon a man dead from starvation.... The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves." Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before ever reaching the slave markets of Zanzibar.^{[41][42][43][44]} Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.^[45] David Livingstone (19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish Congregationalist pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and explorer in central Africa. ... Map of Zanzibars main island Zanzibar is part of Tanzania Coordinates: , Country Tanzania Islands Unguja and Pemba Capital Zanzibar City Settled AD 1000 Government  - Type semi-autonomous part of Tanzania  - President Amani Abeid Karume Area  - Both Islands  637 sq mi (1,651 km²) Population (2004)  - Both Islands 1,070... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Some sources estimate that between 11 and 17 million slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900.^[46][47]

Atlantic Ocean trade

Main article Atlantic slave trade

The first Europeans to arrive on the coast of Guinea were the Portuguese; the first European to actually buy African slaves in the region of Guinea was Antão Gonçalves, a Portuguese explorer. Originally interested in trading mainly for gold and spices, they set up colonies on the uninhabited islands of São Tomé. In the 16th century the Portuguese settlers found that these volcanic islands were ideal for growing sugar. Sugar growing is a labour-intensive undertaking and Portuguese settlers were difficult to attract due to the heat, lack of infrastructure, and hard life. To cultivate the sugar the Portuguese turned to large numbers of African slaves. Elmina Castle on the Gold Coast, originally built by African labor for the Portuguese in 1482 to control the gold trade, became an important depot for slaves that were to be transported to the New World.^[48] The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the colonies of the New World that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. ... Antão Gonçalves was a 15th century Portuguese explorer and slave trader who was the first European to take Africans as slaves. ... GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation). ... São Tomé (population 53,300 in 2003) is the capital city of São Tomé and Príncipe and is by far the nations largest town. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... St. ... Flag of Gold Coast Map from 1896 of the British Gold Coast Colony. ... Frontispiece of Peter Martyr dAnghieras De orbe novo (On the New World). Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, 1722. ...

The first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World were the Spaniards who sought auxiliaries for their conquest expeditions and laborers on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, where the alarming death rate in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population (Laws of Burgos, 1512-1513). The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.^[49]

In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V of Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade and European colonialism.^{[citation needed]} However Pope Eugene IV in his bull, Sicut Dudum of 1435 had condemned the enslavement of the black inhabitants of the Canary Islands. Pope Paul III in 1537 issued an additional Bull, Sublimis Deus, declaring that all peoples, even those outside the faith should not be deprived of their liberty. The followers of the church of England and Protestants did not use the papal bulls as a justification for their involvement in slavery. Nicholas V, né Tomaso Parentucelli (November 15, 1397 – March 24, 1455) was Pope from March 6, 1447, to his death. ... Papal bull of Pope Urban VIII, 1637, sealed with a leaden bulla. ... In 18 June 1452: Pope Nicholas V issues Dum Diversas, a bull authorising the Portuguese to reduce any non-Christians to the status of slaves. ... Afonso V of Portugal, Conqueror of African strongholds Afonso V, King of Portugal KG (Portuguese pron. ... The Romanus Pontifex[1] is a papal bull written January 8, 1455 by Pope Nicholas V to King Afonso V of Portugal. ... Eugenius IV, né Gabriel Condulmer (1383 - February 23, 1447) was pope from March 3, 1431 to his death. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. ... Pope Paul III with his cardinal-nephew Alessandro Cardinal Farnese (left) and his other grandson (right), Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma Pope Paul III (February 29, 1468 – November 10, 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1534 to his death 1549. ... On June 2, 1537, Pope Paul III promulgated the encyclical Sublimis Deus (Veritas Ipsa), which declares the natives of the New World to be rational beings with souls who must not be enslaved or robbed. ...

Increasing penetration into the Americas by the Portuguese created more demand for labour in Brazil--primarily for farming and mining. Slave-based economies quickly spread to the Caribbean and the southern portion of what is today the United States, where Dutch traders brought the first African slaves in 1620. These areas all developed an insatiable demand for slaves. As European nations grew more powerful, especially Portugal, Spain, France, England and the Netherlands, they began vying for control of the African slave trade, with little effect on the local African and Arab trading. Great Britain's existing colonies in the Lesser Antilles and their effective naval control of the Mid Atlantic forced other countries to abandon their enterprises due to inefficiency in cost. The English crown provided a charter giving the Royal African Company monopoly over the African slave routes until 1712.^[50] Farming, ploughing rice paddy, in Indonesia Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other desired products by cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). ... This article is about mineral extractions. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... The Royal African Company was a slaving company set up by the Stuart family and London merchants once the former retook the English throne in 1660. ...

The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms against weaker African tribes and peoples. These mass slavers included the Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Kingdom of Benin, Kingdom of Fouta Djallon, Kingdom of Fouta Tooro, Kingdom of Koya, Kingdom of Khasso, Kingdom of Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, and the kingdom of Dahomey. Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of disease and moreover fierce African resistance.^[51][52] The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the colonies of the New World that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. ... Oyo (Ọyọ in Yoruba orthography, pronounced ) is the name of a Yoruba city in modern-day Nigeria and also of the loose empire which that city controlled in the 17th and 18th centuries. ... The Yoruba (Yorùbá in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in Africa; the majority of them speak the Yoruba language (èdèe Yorùbá; èdè = language). ... The Kong Empire (1710-1895), also known as the Wattara Empire or Ouattara Empire for its founder, was a pre-colonial African state centered in north eastern Cote dIvoire that also encompassed much of present-day Burkina Faso. ... --168. ... The Kingdom of Fouta Djallon or the Kingdom of Fuuta Jallon was a pre-colonial West African state in modern Guinea. ... Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... The Kingdom of Koya or Koya Temne or Temne Kingdom (1505-1896) was a pre-colonial African state in the north of present-day Sierra Leone. ... Khasso or Xaaso was a West African kingdom of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, occupying territory in what is today Senegal and the Kayes Region of Mali. ... The Kingdom of Kaabu or Gabu or N’Gabu (1546-1867) was a Mandinka Kingdom of Guinea Bissau that rose to prominence in the region thanks to its origins as a former province of the Mali Empire. ... The Fante Confederacy can refer either to the loose alliance of the Fante states in existence at least since the eighteenth century, or it can refer to the briefly lived Confederation formed in 1868 and dissolved in 1874. ... For other uses, see Ashanti (disambiguation). ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ... Tropical diseases are infectious diseases that either occur uniquely in tropical and subtropical regions (which is rare) or, more commonly, are either more widespread in the tropics or more difficult to prevent or control. ...

Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery had already existed in Kingdom of Kongo. Despite its establishment within his kingdom, Afonso I of Kongo believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote letters to the King João III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.^[53] The Kingdom of Congo (now usually rendered as Kingdom of Kongo to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations) Capital Mbanza-Kongo, Angola; re-named São Salvador in the late 16th century; re-named back to Mbanza-Kongo in 1975 Religion Christianity with some traditional practices Government Monarchy... Afonso I (often spelled Affonso as he did in his own letters) Mvemba a Nzinga of Kongo (c1456 - 1542 or 1543), who reigned from 1509 to late 1542 or 1543, was the son of king Nzinga a Nkuwu, who was ruling in 1483 when the Portuguese arrived, and was baptized... John III (Portuguese: João III pron. ... January 14 - Treaty of Madrid. ...

The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.^[54][55][56] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French.^[57] Benin grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast".^[58] Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ... Geneva Convention definition A prisoner of war (POW) is a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine who is imprisoned by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. ... Every year in the Kingdom of Dahomey, a huge festival in honor of the ancestors was organized called the annual customs. In the customs, the king would assemble the entire court, foreign dignitaries, and the populace. ... The Bambara Empire (also Bamana Empire or Ségou Empire) was a large kingdom based at Ségou, now in Mali. ... Khasso was a West African kingdom of the nineteenth century, occupying territory in what is today Senegal and the Kayes Region of Mali. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... For other uses of War, see War (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

King Gezo of Dahomey said in 1840's: Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ...

The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth…the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…^[59]

In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria) was horrified at the conclusion of the practice:

We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself.^[60]

Source of slaves

Slave transport in Africa, from a 19th century engraving

All three slave-trading routes tapped into local trading patterns. Europeans or Arabs in Africa very rarely mounted expeditions to capture slaves. Lack of people and the prevalence of disease prevented any widespread gathering of slaves by Europeans and other non-Africans. Local rulers were very rarely open to allowing groups of armed foreigners to enter their lands.^[61] It was far easier and more common to make use of existing African middlemen and slave traders. Slavery has been present in Africa for millennia, and still is today even with children, though some historians prefer to describe African slavery as feudalism, arguing it was more like the serfdom system that controlled the peasantry of Western Europe during the Middle Ages or Russia into the 19th century than slavery as it was practiced in the Americas.^[62] Download high resolution version (924x536, 259 KB)This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons, a repository of free content hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation. ... Download high resolution version (924x536, 259 KB)This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons, a repository of free content hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation. ... Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste Feudalism, a term first used in the late modern period (17th century), in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval European political system comprised of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the... Serf redirects here. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The slaves came from many different sources. About half came from the societies that sold them. These might be criminals, heretics, the mentally ill, the indebted and any others that had fallen out of favour with the rulers. Little is known about the details of theses practices before the arrival of Europeans, and so it is difficult to tell if the number of people considered as undesirables was artificially increased to provide more slaves for export. It is believed that capital punishment in the region nearly disappeared since prisoners became far too valuable to dispose of in such a way.^[63] For other uses, see Crime (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Heresy (disambiguation). ... A mental illness or mental disorder refers to one of many mental health conditions characterized by distress, impaired cognitive functioning, atypical behavior, emotional dysregulation, and/or maladaptive behavior. ... For other uses, see Debt (disambiguation). ... Death penalty, death sentence, and execution redirect here. ...

Another source of slaves, comprising about half the total, came from military conquests of other states or tribes. It has long been contended that the slave trade greatly increased violence and warfare in the region due to the pursuit of slaves, but it is hard to provide evidence to prove this; tribal warfare was certainly common even before slave hunting had added such an extra inducement.^[64] For other uses, see State (disambiguation). ... http://www. ... Endemic warfare is the state of continual, low-threshold warfare in a tribal warrior society. ...

For the Atlantic slave trade, captives purchased from slave dealers in West African regions known as the Slave Coast, Gold Coast, and Côte d'Ivoire were sold into slavery as a result of a defeat in warfare. In the Bight of Biafra near modern-day Senegal and Benin, some African kings sold their captives locally and later to European slave traders for goods such as metal cookware, rum, livestock, and seed grain. Previous to the voyage, the victims were held in "slave castles" and deep pits where many died from multiple illnesses and malnutrition. Conditions were even worse in the Middle Passage across the Atlantic where up to a third of the slaves died en route. The Slave Coast is the name of the coastal areas of present Togo, Benin (formerly Dahomey) and western Nigeria, a fertile region of coastal Western Africa along the Bight of Benin. ... Flag of Gold Coast Map from 1896 of the British Gold Coast Colony. ... The Bight of Bonny (formerly Bight of Biafra) is a bay at the African coast in the Gulf of Guinea. ... This article is about the slave trade route. ...

Elikia M’bokolo, April 1998, Le Monde diplomatique. Quote:"The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"^[65] This monthly magazine is not to be mistaken for the daily Le Monde. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed Le Diplo by its French readers) is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics, culture, and current affairs. ... Nations with a Muslim majority appear in green, while nations that are approximately 50% Muslim appear yellow. ... Swahili (also called Kiswahili; see Kiswahili for a discussion of the nomenclature) is an agglutinative Bantu language widely spoken in East Africa. ...

Effects

Effect on the economy of Africa

Cowrie shells were used as money in the slave trade

Two slightly differing Okpoho Manillas as used to purchase slaves

Few scholars dispute the harm done to the slaves themselves, but the effect of the trade on African societies is much debated due to the apparent influx of capital to Africans. Proponents of the slave trade, such as Archibald Dalzel, argued that African societies were robust and not much affected by the ongoing trade. In the 19th century, European abolitionists, most prominently Dr. David Livingston, took the opposite view arguing that the fragile local economy and societies were being severely harmed by the ongoing trade. This view continued with scholars until the 1960s and 70s such as Basil Davidson, who conceded it might have had some benefits while still acknowledging its largely negative impact on Africa.^[66] Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own people to the European slave-traders. Most of this money was spent on British-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1665x1326, 1264 KB) Various cowrie species Licence: self-made photo, February 2005 File links The following pages link to this file: Cowry ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1665x1326, 1264 KB) Various cowrie species Licence: self-made photo, February 2005 File links The following pages link to this file: Cowry ... Cowry shells (also spelled cowrie), are marine snails of the genus Cypraea (family Cypraeidae), found chiefly in tropical regions, especially around the Maldives or the East Indies. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 448 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (1712 × 2288 pixel, file size: 998 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Two very similar Okhapo variety of Manillas from Nigeria. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 448 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (1712 × 2288 pixel, file size: 998 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Two very similar Okhapo variety of Manillas from Nigeria. ... Manillas are penannular (almost ring-like) armlets, mostly in bronze or copper, very rarely gold, which served as a form of Primitive Money or barter coinage and to a degree, ornamentation, amongst certain West African tribes (Guinea Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria, etc. ... Archibald Dalzel (1740-1811) was a British adventurer and Governor of the Gold Coast (now Ghana). ... This article is about the abolition of slavery. ... David Livingstone (19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish medical missionary and explorer in central Africa. ... Basil Davidson (born 9 November 1914 in Bristol England) is an acclaimed writer and Africanist historian with leftist leanings. ... Walter Rodney (March 23, 1942 - June 13, 1980) was a prominent Guyanese historian and political figure. ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ...

Today, however, some scholars assert that slavery did not have a wholly disastrous effect on those left behind in Africa.^[67] Slaves were an expensive commodity, and traders received a great deal in exchange for each slave. At the peak of the slave trade, it is said that hundreds of thousands of muskets, vast quantities of cloth, gunpowder and metals were being shipped to Guinea. Guinea's trade with Europe at the peak of the slave trade—which also included significant exports of gold and ivory—was some 3.5 million pounds Sterling per year. By contrast, the trade of the United Kingdom, the economic superpower of the time, was about 14 million pounds per year over this same period of the late 18th century. As Patrick Manning has pointed out, the vast majority of items traded for slaves were common rather than luxury goods. Textiles, iron ore, currency, and salt were some of the most important commodities imported as a result of the slave trade, and these goods were spread within the entire society raising the general standard of living.^[68] In contrast, other scholars find that the trade in slave had a detrimental effect on long-term economic growth and development. Although the evidence suggests a causal effect, the channel trough which slave trade affects subsequent economic growth and development is not clear. One likely explanation is that the slave trade impeded the formation of larger ethnic groups, causing ethnic fractionalization and weaking the formation of stable political structures.^[69] (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Patrick Manning is Andrew W. Mellon Professor of World History at the University of Pittsburgh. ...

Effects on Europe’s economy

Eric Williams had attempted to show the contribution of Africans on the basis of profits from the slave trade and slavery, and the employment of those profits to finance Britain’s industrialization process. He argues that the enslavement of Africans was an essential element to the Industrial Revolution, and that European wealth is a result of slavery. However, he argued that by the time of its abolition it had lost its profitability and it was in Britain's economic interest to ban it. Seymour Dreshcer and Robert Antsey have both presented evidence that the slave trade remained profitable until the end, and that reasons other than economics led to its cessation. Joseph InikoPornri have shown elsewhere that the British slave trade was more profitable than the critics of Williams would want us to believe. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.^[70] Dr. Eric Williams Dr. Eric Eustace Williams (September 25, 1911 – March 29, 1981) was the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago. ... The Caribbean or the West Indies is a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. ... A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ...

A similar debate has taken place about other European nations. French slave trade was more profitable than alternative domestic investments and probably encouraged capital accumulation before the Industrial Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.^[71] Combatants Austria[a] Portugal Prussia[a] Russia[b] Sicily[c] Sardinia  Spain[d]  Sweden[e] United Kingdom French Empire Holland[f] Italy Etruria[g] Naples[h] Duchy of Warsaw[i] Confederation of the Rhine[j] Bavaria Saxony Westphalia Württemberg Denmark-Norway[k] Commanders Archduke Charles Prince Schwarzenberg Karl Mack...

Demographics

The demographic effects of the slave trade are some of the most controversial and debated issues. Tens of millions of people were removed from Africa via the slave trade, and what effect this had on Africa is an important question. Walter Rodney argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and largely explains that continent's continued poverty.^[72] He presents numbers that show that Africa's population stagnated during this period, while that of Europe and Asia grew dramatically. According to Rodney all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries to pursue slaving and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself. Walter Rodney (March 23, 1942 - June 13, 1980) was a prominent Guyanese historian and political figure. ...

Others have challenged this view. J. D. Fage compared the number effect on the continent as a whole. David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of emigration from Europe during this period. In the nineteenth century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, a far higher rate than were ever taken from Africa.^[73] John Donnelly Fage (1921-2002) was a British historian noted for his work on African history. ... A memorial statue in Hanko, Finland, commemorating the thousands of emigrants who left the country to start a new life in the United States Emigration is the act and the phenomenon of leaving ones native country or region to settle in another. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

Others have challenged this view. Joseph E. Inikori argues the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious. He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European, and could not sustain such population losses. Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems. Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines.^[74] Shahadah also states that the trade was not only of demographic significance, in aggregate population losses but also in the profound changes to settlement patterns, epidemiological exposure and reproductive and social development potential.

In addition, the majority of the slaves being taken to the Americas were male. So while the slave trade created an immediate drop in the population, its long term effects were less drastic.^[2].

Legacy of racism

Maulana Karenga states that the effects of slavery where "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among people of today." . He cites that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.^[75] Dr. Ron Karenga Dr. Ron Karenga (Maulana Ron Karenga, Maulana Karenga, Ron Ndabezitha Everett-Karenga, Ron N. Everett) is an author and activist best known as the founder of the African-American holiday of Kwanzaa, first celebrated in California, December 26, 1966 to January 1, 1967. ...

Abolition

Beginning in the late 18th century, France was Europe's first country to abolish slavery, in 1794, but it was revived by Napoleon in 1802, and banned for good in 1848. In 1807 the British Parliament passed the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act, under which captains of slave ships could be stiffly fined for each slave transported.^[76] This was later superseded by the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act, which freed all slaves in the British Empire. Abolition was then extended to the rest of Europe. The 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade made slave trading piracy, punishable by death.^[77] In 1827, Britain declares the slave trade piracy, punishable by death. The power of the Royal Navy was subsequently used to suppress the slave trade, and while some illegal trade, mostly with Brazil, continued, the Atlantic slave trade would be eradicated by the middle of the 19th century. The West Africa Squadron was credited with capturing 1,600 slave ships between 1808 and 1860 and freeing 150,000 Africans who were aboard these ships.^[78] Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against ‘the usurping King of Lagos’, deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.^[79] (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... A replica of the slave ship the Zong, moored by Tower Bridge to mark 200 years since the Slave Trade Act 1807 (April 2007) HMS Northumberland moored by HMS Belfast during the same commemoration, marking modern anti-slaving operations The Slave Trade Act (citation ) was an Act of Parliament of... This article is about maritime piracy. ... Death penalty, death sentence, and execution redirect here. ... This article is about the navy of the United Kingdom. ... The West Africa Squadron, established in 1808 after the passing of the Slave Trade Act in 1807, was a unit of the Royal Navy that was involved in the suppression of the slave trade in West Africa. ... Year 1808 (MDCCCVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ...

The Islamic trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean trades continued, however, and even increased as new sources of slaves became available. In Caucasus, slavery was abolished after Russian conquest. The slave trade within Africa also increased. The British Navy could suppress much of the trade in the Indian Ocean, but the European powers could do little to affect the intra-continental trade.^[80] Islam (Arabic: ; ( ▶ (help· info)), the submission to God) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions and the worlds second-largest religion. ... For other uses, see Sahara (disambiguation). ... For the term Caucasian referring to all white people, see Caucasian race. ...

The continuing anti-slavery movement in Europe became an excuse and a casus belli for the European conquest and colonisation of much of the African continent. In the late 19th century, the Scramble for Africa saw the continent rapidly divided between Imperialistic Europeans, and an early but secondary focus of all colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. In response to this public pressure, Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery is still very active in Africa even though it has gradually moved to a wage economy. Independent nations attempting to westernise or impress Europe sometimes cultivated an image of slavery suppression, even as they, in the case of Egypt, hired European soldiers like Samuel White Baker's expedition up the Nile. Slavery has never been eradicated in Africa, and it commonly appears in African states, such as Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, Niger, and Sudan, in places where law and order have collapsed.^[81]. See also Slavery in modern Africa. This article is about slavery. ... Casus belli is a modern Latin language expression meaning the justification for acts of war. ... Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... This article is about a type of political territory. ... Year 1932 (MCMXXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1932 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... A wage is a compensation which workers receive in exchange for their labor. ... Sir Samuel White Baker (8 June 1821-30 December 1893) was an English explorer. ... For other uses, see Law (disambiguation). ... Gari Melchers, Mural of Peace, 1896. ... Slavery in Africa, as in some other regions of the world, continues today. ...

Although outlawed in nearly all countries today slavery is practiced in secret in many parts of the world.^[82] There are an estimated 27 million victims of slavery worldwide.^[83] In Mauritania alone up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved, many of them used as bonded labour.^[84][85] Slavery in Mauritania was finally criminalized in August 2007.^[86] It is estimated that as many as 200,000 black Sudanese children and women have been taken into slavery in Sudan during the Second Sudanese Civil War.^[87][88] In Niger, where the practice of slavery was outlawed in 2003, a study found that almost 8% of the population are still slaves.^[89][90] The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Slavery in Mauritania persists despite its abolition in 1980 and affects the descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery before generations, who live now in Mauritania as black Moors or haratin and who partially still serve the white Moors, or bidhan, as slaves. ... Slavery in the Sudan has a long history, beginning in ancient Egyptian times and continuing up to the present. ... Belligerents Sudanese Government (North Sudan) Sudan Peoples Liberation Army Eastern Front Commanders Gaafar Nimeiry Sadiq al-Mahdi Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir John Garang Casualties and losses 1. ...

See also

The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the colonies of the New World that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Islam and slavery. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... 13th century slave market in Yemen The major juristic schools of Islam traditionally accepted the institution of slavery. ... Slavery in Mauritania persists despite its abolition in 1980 and affects the descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery before generations, who live now in Mauritania as black Moors or haratin and who partially still serve the white Moors, or bidhan, as slaves. ... Slavery in the Sudan has a long history, beginning in ancient Egyptian times and continuing up to the present. ... Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for forms of work, especially in modern or early modern history, in which adults and/or children are employed without wages, or for a minimal wage. ... The word Maafa (also known as the African Holocaust or Holocaust of Enslavement) is derived from a Kiswahili word meaning disaster, terrible occurrence or great tragedy. ... Categories: People stubs | 1837 births | 1905 deaths ... Slavery in Africa, as in some other regions of the world, continues today. ... This article is about slavery. ... The history of slavery covers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout human history. ... The institution of slavery in ancient Rome made many people non-persons before their legal system. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... James Riley (b. ... Slave redirects here. ... Slave ships were cargo boats specially converted for the purpose of transporting slaves, especially newly captured African slaves. ... The African diaspora was the movement of Africans and their descendants to places throughout the world - predominantly to the Americas, then later to Europe, the Middle East and other corners of the globe. ...

Notes

To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 91st day of the year (92nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 274th day of the year (275th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Quarterly Journal of Economics, or QJE, is an economics journal published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ... Location in Middlesex County in Massachusetts Coordinates: , Country State County Middlesex Settled 1630 Incorporated 1636 Government  - Type Mayor-City Council  - Mayor Kenneth Reeves (D) Area  - Total 7. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... MIT Press Books The MIT Press is a university publisher affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 100th day of the year (101st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Ron Karenga (born July 14, 1941), also known as Ron Everett, is an African American author and Marxist political activist. ...

Further reading

• Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery
• Fage, J.D. A History of Africa (Routledge, 4th edition, 2001 ISBN 0-415-25247-4)
• Faragher, John Mack; Mari Jo Buhle, Daniel Czitrom, Susan H. Armitage (2004). Out of Many. Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 54. ISBN 0-13-182431-7. 
• Lovejoy, Paul E. Transformations in Slavery 1983
• The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation.(Review): An article from: Population and Development Review [HTML] (Digital) by Tukufu Zuberi
• Walter Rodney: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher. ...

External links

• Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
• Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery
• African Holocaust African Slave trade and legacy
• Set All Free - Act to end slavery - British site commemorating 200 years since the passing of Abolition of the Slave Trade Act
• Rice N Peas - Interview with an Ex-Slave
• Scale of African slavery revealed
• Nigeria's 'respectable' slave trade
• Africa's trade in children
• The story of Africa: Slavery
• Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade - schools resource
• "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique