Agathis australis
Conservation status
Conservation Dependent (IUCN)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Pinophyta Class: Pinopsida Order: Pinales Family: Araucariaceae Genus: Agathis Species: A. australis
Binomial name
Agathis australis (D.Don) Loudon

Agathis australis, commonly known as the kauri, is a coniferous tree found north of 38°S in the northern districts of New Zealand's North Island. It is the largest (by volume) but not tallest species of tree in the country, standing up to 50m tall in the emergent layer above the forest's main canopy. The tree has smooth bark and small oval leaves. Other common names to distinguish A. australis from other members of the genus are southern kauri and New Zealand kauri. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1448x2993, 2029 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Waipoua Forest ... The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species continuing to survive either in the present day or the future. ... Image File history File links Status_iucn2. ... Conservation Dependent (LR/cd) was an IUCN category assigned to species or lower taxa which were dependent on conservation efforts to prevent the taxon becoming threatened with extinction. ... The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List and Red Data List), created in 1963, is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species and can be found here. ... Scientific classification or biological classification is a method by which biologists group and categorize species of organisms. ... Divisions Green algae Chlorophyta Charophyta Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Marchantiophyta—liverworts Anthocerotophyta—hornworts Bryophyta—mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) †Rhyniophyta—rhyniophytes †Zosterophyllophyta—zosterophylls Lycopodiophyta—clubmosses †Trimerophytophyta—trimerophytes Pteridophyta—ferns and horsetails Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta—seed ferns Pinophyta—conifers Cycadophyta—cycads Ginkgophyta—ginkgo Gnetophyta—gnetae Magnoliophyta—flowering plants... Orders & Families Cordaitales † Pinales   Pinaceae - Pine family   Araucariaceae - Araucaria family   Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family   Sciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family   Cupressaceae - Cypress family   Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family   Taxaceae - Yew family Vojnovskyales † Voltziales † The conifers, division Pinophyta, also known as division Coniferae, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the... Orders & Families Cordaitales † Pinales   Pinaceae - Pine family   Araucariaceae - Araucaria family   Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family   Sciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family   Cupressaceae - Cypress family   Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family   Taxaceae - Yew family Vojnovskyales † Voltziales † The conifers, division Pinophyta, also known as division Coniferae, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the... Families Pinaceae, pine family Araucariaceae, araucaria family Podocarpaceae, yellow-wood family Phyllocladaceae Sciadopityaceae, umbrella-pine family Cupressaceae, cypress family Cephalotaxaceae, plum-yew family Taxaceae, yew family The Order Pinales in the Division Pinophyta, Class Pinopsida comprises all the extant conifers. ... Genera Agathis Araucaria Wollemia The Araucariaceae are a very ancient family of conifers. ... Species See text The genus Agathis, commonly known as kauri or dammar forms a relatively small group of 21 species of evergreen trees in the family Araucariaceae, characteristically with very large trunks and little or no branching for some way up. ... In biology, binomial nomenclature is the formal system of naming species. ... David Don (21 December 1799 - 15 December 1841) was an English botanist, Professor of Botany at Kings College, London from 1836–1841, and librarian at the Linnean Society of London from 1822–1841. ... John Claudius Loudon (April 8, 1783 - 1843) was a Scottish botanist, garden and cemetery designer, and garden magazine editor. ... Orders & Families Cordaitales † Pinales   Pinaceae - Pine family   Araucariaceae - Araucaria family   Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family   Sciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family   Cupressaceae - Cypress family   Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family   Taxaceae - Yew family Vojnovskyales † Voltziales † The conifers, division Pinophyta, also known as division Coniferae, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the... The coniferous Coast Redwood, the tallest tree species on earth. ... North Island The North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, the other being the South Island. ... For other meanings of bark, see Bark (disambiguation). ... Species See text The genus Agathis, commonly known as kauri or dammar forms a relatively small group of 21 species of evergreen trees in the family Araucariaceae, characteristically with very large trunks and little or no branching for some way up. ...

Though kauri are among the most ancient trees in the world, they have developed a unique niche in the forest. With their novel soil interaction and regeneration pattern they are able to compete with the more recently evolved and faster growing angiosperms. Because it is such a conspicuous species, forest containing kauri is generally known as kauri forest, though kauri need not be the most abundant tree. In the warmer northern climate, kauri forests have a higher species richness than others found further south. Classes Magnoliopsida - Dicots Liliopsida - Monocots The flowering plants (also angiosperms or Magnoliophyta) are one of the major groups of modern plants, comprising those that produce seeds in specialized reproductive organs called flowers, where the ovulary or carpel is enclosed. ... Species richness is the simplest measure of biodiversity and is simply a count of the number of different species in a given area. ...

Ruby Is Cool

Foliage on a young tree. Foliage of older trees is usually unreachable.

Young plants grow straight upwards and have the form of a narrow cone with branches going out along the length of the trunk. However, as they gain in height, the lowest branches are shed, preventing epiphytes from climbing. By maturity, the top branches form an imposing crown that stand out over all other native trees, dominating the heights of the forest. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2196x1242, 637 KB) Young kauri leaves (from a young kauri tree at Gumdiggers Park, Waiharara, New Zealand). ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2196x1242, 637 KB) Young kauri leaves (from a young kauri tree at Gumdiggers Park, Waiharara, New Zealand). ... Pinus taeda cross section showing annual growth rings (Cheraw, South Carolina) In botany, trunk refers to the main structural member of a tree that is supported by and directly attached to the roots and which in turn supports the branches. ... Near Orosí, Costa Rica Epiphytes on a tree near Santa Elena in Costa Rica An example of an epiphyte assemblage of orchids and bromeliads in a garden setting in Hawaii An epiphyte is any plant that grows upon or attached to another living plant. ...

The flaking bark of the kauri tree defends it from parasitic plants, and accumulates around the base of the trunk. On large trees it may pile up to a height of 2 m or more.^[1] The kauri has a habit of forming small clumps or patches scattered through mixed forests.^[2]

Kauri leaves are 3 to 7 cm long and 1 cm broad, tough and leathery in texture, with no midrib; they are arranged in opposite pairs or whorls of three on the stem. The seed cones are globose, 5 to 7 cm diameter, and mature 18 to 20 months after pollination; the seed cones disintegrate at maturity to release winged seeds, which are then dispersed by the wind. While the reproduction of kauri seed cones takes place between male and female seed cones of the same tree, fertilisation of the seeds occurs by pollination, which may be driven by the same or another tree's pollen. “Foliage” redirects here. ... Mature female European Black Pine cone Male cones of a pine A cone (in formal botanical usage: strobilus, plural strobili) is an organ on plants in the division Pinophyta (conifers) that contains the reproductive structures. ... A ripe red jalapeño cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ... A sperm cell fertilizing an ovum This article is about reproduction in organisms. ... A flower-fly pollinating a Common Daisy (Bellis perennis) Pollination is an important step in the reproduction of seed plants: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) to the plant carpel, the structure that contains the ovule (female gamete). ...

Kauri forests are among the most ancient in the world. The antecedents of the kauri appeared during the Jurassic period (between 190 and 135 million years). The Jurassic period is a major unit of the geologic timescale that extends from about 195 million years BP at the end of the Triassic to 135 million years BP at the beginning of the Cretaceous. ...

Size

Agathis australis tree 'Te Matua Ngahere'

Agathis australis can attain heights of 40 to 50 metres and trunk diameters big enough to rival Californian Sequoias at over 5 meters. The largest kauris do not attain as much height or girth at ground level but contain more timber in their cylindrical trunks than a comparable Sequoia with its tapering stem. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1350x3374, 1749 KB) Kauri tree Te Matua Ngahere (Father of the Forest) at Waipoua Forest (Northland, New Zealand). ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1350x3374, 1749 KB) Kauri tree Te Matua Ngahere (Father of the Forest) at Waipoua Forest (Northland, New Zealand). ... Binomial name (Lindl. ...

The largest specimen of which there is any known record grew on the mountains at the head of the Tararu Creek that falls into the Hauraki Gulf just north of the mouth of the Waihou River (Thames). This tree was known as The Great Ghost. Local Thames Historian Alastair Isdale noted this tree was 8.54 metres in diameter, and 26.83 metres in girth. Tragically it was consumed by fire c.1890. A true-colour image showing Auckland city (left), the Hauraki Gulf (centre) and the Coromandel Peninsula (right). ... The Waihou River as it passes Paeroa The Waihou River system The Waihou River is located in the northern North Island of New Zealand. ...

A kauri tree at Mill Creek, Mercury Bay was measured in the early 1840s to be 22 metres in circumference and 24 metres to the first branches. It is thought that this tree was felled around 1870. ^[3] Mercury Bay is a large V-shaped bay on the eastern (Pacific Ocean) coast of the Coromandel Peninsula in New Zealand. ...

Growth rate and age

In general over the lifetime of the tree the growth rate tends to increase, reach a maximum, then decline. ^[4]

A 1987 study measured mean annual diameter increments ranging from 1.5 to 4.6 mm per year with an overall average of 2.3 mm per year. This is equivalent to 8.7 annual rings per centimetre of core, said to be half the commonly quoted figure for growth rate. The same study concluded only a weak relationship between age and diameter. Individuals in the same 10 cm diameter class may vary in age by 300 years, and the largest individual on any particular site is often not the oldest. ^[5]

Experts agree that because of the variation in growth rate it is not possible to accurately assess the age of a standing tree from its diameter alone. ^[6][5]

Trees can normally live longer than 600 years. Some individuals probably often exceed 1000 years. ^[5]

Root structure and soil interaction

One of the defining aspects of this tree's unique niche is its relationship with the soil below. Much like podocarps, it feeds in the organic litter near the surface of the soil through fine root hairs. This layer of the soil is composed of organic matter derived from falling leaves and branches as well as dead trees, and is constantly undergoing decomposition. On the other hand, broadleaf trees such as Māhoe derive a good fraction of their nutrition in the deeper mineral layer of the soil. Although its root system is very shallow, it also has several downwardly directed peg roots which anchor it firmly in the soil. Such a solid foundation is necessary for a tree the size of a kauri to avoid blowing over, especially during storms and cyclones. Two lichenes species on a rock, in two different ecological niches In ecology, a niche is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in an ecosystem. ... Loess field in Germany Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till, Northern Ireland Technically, soil forms the pedosphere: the interface between the lithosphere (rocky part of the planet) and the biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. ... Genera Acmopyle Afrocarpus Dacrycarpus Dacrydium Falcatifolium Halocarpus Lagarostrobos Lepidothamnus Manoao Microcachrys Microstrobos Nageia Parasitaxus Phyllocladus Podocarpus Prumnopitys Retrophyllum Saxegothaea Sundacarpus A large family of mainly Southern Hemisphere conifers, with 18-19 genera and about 170-200 species of evergreen trees and shrubs. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Interior structure of a trichome. ... “Spoilage” redirects here. ... Classes Magnoliopsida - Dicots Liliopsida - Monocots The flowering plants (also angiosperms or Magnoliophyta) are one of the major groups of modern plants, comprising those that produce seeds in specialized reproductive organs called flowers, where the ovulary or carpel is enclosed. ... Botanical illustration by Gerald Sibelius Melicytus ramiflorus ( Māhoe or Whitey-wood) is a small tree of the family Violaceae endemic to New Zealand. ... The updated USDA food pyramid, published in 2005, is a general nutrition guide for recommended food consumption. ... A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure and specific physical properties. ... Primary and secondary roots in a cotton plant In vascular plants, the root is that organ of a plant body that typically lies below the surface of the soil (compare with stem). ... A shelf cloud associated with a heavy or severe thunderstorm over Enschede, Netherlands A storm is any disturbed state of an astronomical bodys atmosphere, especially affecting its surface, and strongly implying severe weather. ... Radar image of a tropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere. ...

The litter left by kauri is much more acidic than most trees, and as it decays similarly acidic compounds are liberated. In a process known as leeching, these acidic molecules pass through the soil layers with the help of rainfall, and release other nutrients trapped in clay such as nitrogen and phosphorous. This leaves these important nutrients unavailable to other trees, as they are washed down into deeper layers. This process is known as podsolization, and changes the soil colour to a dull grey. For a single tree, this leaves an area of leeched soil beneath known as a cup podsol. This leaching process is important for kauri's survival as it competes with other species for space. ^[7] Leaf litter and other decaying parts of a kauri decompose much slower than most other species, however. Besides its acidity, the plant also bears substances such as waxes and phenols that are harmful to microorganisms. This results in a large buildup of litter around the base of a mature tree, in which its own roots feed. These feeding roots also house a symbiotic fungi known as mycorrhiza which increase the plant's efficiency in taking up nutrients. In this mutualistic relationship, the fungus derives its own nutrition from the roots. In its interactions with the soil kauri is thus able to starve its competitors of much needed nutrients and compete with much younger lineages. Blanket of reddish-brown ponderosa pine needles covering the ground. ... For alternative meanings see acid (disambiguation). ... In pre-scientific medicine, leeching was an alternative form of blood letting in which bad blood would be removed via leeches instead of by bleeding. ... Rain is a type of precipitation which forms when separate drops of water fall to the Earths surface from clouds. ... The Gay Head cliffs in Marthas Vineyard are made almost entirely of clay. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... Phosphite is a polyatomic ion with the formula: PO33-. The archaic name for phosphite was phosphorous, not to be confused with phosphorus. ... Spodosol profile The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... candle wax This page is about the substance. ... Phenol, also known under an older name of carbolic acid, is a colourless crystalline solid with a typical sweet tarry odor. ... A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ... Common Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris) in their Magnificent Sea Anemone (Heteractis magnifica) home. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota The Fungi (singular: fungus) are a large group of organisms ranked as a kingdom within the Domain Eukaryota. ... A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas, Greek for fungus roots) is the result of a mutualistic association between a fungus and a plant. ... In biology, mutualism is an interaction between two species in which both species derive benefit. ... Plant evolution is an aspect of the study of biological evolution, involving predominantly the evolution of plants suited to live on land, the greening of the various land masses by the filling of their niches with land plants, and the diversification of the groups of land plants. ...

Distribution

Local spatial distribution

A kauri at Waipoua Forest.

In terms of local topography, kauri is far from randomly dispersed. As mentioned above, kauri relies on depriving its competitors of nutrition in order to survive. However, one important consideration not discussed thus far is the slope of the land. Water on hills flows downward by the action of gravity, taking with in nutrients in the soil. This results in a gradient from nutrient poor soil at the top of slopes to nutrient rich soils below. As nutrients leached are replaced by aqueous nitrates and phosphates from above, kauri trees are less able to inhibit the growth of strong competitors such as angiosperms. In contrast, the leeching process is only enhanced on higher elevation. In Waipoua Forest this is reflected in higher abundances of kauri on ridge crests, and greater concentrations of its main competitors, such as taraire are found at low elevations. This pattern is known as niche partitioning, and allows more than one species to occupy the same area. Those species which live alongside kauri include tawari, a montane broadleaf tree which is normally found in higher altitudes, where nutrient cycling is naturally slow. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1704 × 2272 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1704 × 2272 pixel, file size: 2. ... Location of Waipoua Forest Waipoua Forest preserves some of the best examples of kauri forest remaining in New Zealand. ... For discussion of land surfaces themselves, see Terrain. ... The panoramic view from Connors Hill, near Swifts Creek, Victoria A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain, in a limited area. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... Taraire (Beilschmiedia taraire) is a tree endemic to New Zealand. ... It has been suggested that Niche segregation be merged into this article or section. ... Binomial name A.Cunn. ... In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic (bio-) and abiotic (geo-) compartments of an ecosystem. ...

Changes over geological time

Kauri is presently found north of 38°S latitude, its southern limit stretching from Kawhia Harbour in the west to the eastern Kaimai Range. ^[8] However, its distribution has changed greatly over geological time due to the phenomenon of climate change. This is exemplified in the recent Holocene epoch by migration southwards following the peak of the last Ice Age. During this time when frozen ice sheets covered much of the world's continents, kauri was able to survive only in isolated pockets, its main refuge being in the very far north. Radiocarbon dating is one technique used by scientists to uncover the history of this tree's distribution, with stump kauri from peat swamps being used for measurement. The coldest period in recent time occurred very roughly 15-20,000 years ago, and during this time kauri was apparently confined north of Kaitaia, which itself is not far from the northern most point of the North Island, North Cape. Much like kumaras grown in New Zealand, kauri requires a mean temperature of 17°C or more for the majority of the year. Kauri's retreat can in fact be used as a proxy for temperature changes during this period. Latitude,usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi, , gives the location of a place on Earth north or south of the equator. ... Location of Kawhia Harbour Kawhia Harbour is one of three large natural inlets in the Tasman Sea coast of the Waikato region of New Zealands North Island. ... Kaimai Range with communications towers The Kaimai Range is a mountain range in the North Island of New Zealand. ... The table and timeline of geologic periods presented here is in accordance with the dates and nomenclature proposed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400,000 years For current global climate change, see Global warming. ... The Holocene epoch is a geological period that extends from the present day back to about 10,000 radiocarbon years, approximately 11,430 ± 130 calendar years BP (between 9560 and 9300 BC). ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400 000 years For the animated movie, see Ice Age (movie). ... An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km² (19,305 mile²). The only current ice sheets are Antarctic and Greenland; during the last ice age at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of Canada... Radiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 (14C) to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60,000 years[1]. Raw, i. ... Peat in Lewis, Scotland Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Location of North Cape North Cape is located at the northern end of the North Auckland Peninsula in the North Island of New Zealand . ... Kumara is the general Polynesian word for the sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas Kumara is also the name of a town on the West Coast of New Zealand Kumara or Kumaraswami is a name for Kartikeya, the Hindu god of war This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which... In climate research, a proxy variable is something that is probably not in itself of any great interest, but from which a variable of interest can be obtained. ...

It remains unclear whether kauri recolonized the North Island from a single refuge in the far north or from scattered pockets of isolated stands that managed to survive despite climatic conditions. It spread south through Whangarei, past Dargaville and as far south as Waikato, attaining its peak distribution during the years 3000-2000 BP.^[8] There is some suggestion it has receded somewhat since then, which may indicate temperatures have declined slightly since this time. During the peak of its movement southwards, it was traveling as fast as 200 metres per year.^[8] Regardless of where it originated from, its spread southward seems relatively rapid for a tree that can take a millennium to reach complete maturity. This can be explained by its life history pattern. Whangarei (the initial consonant is pronounced F as in fa-nga-ray) is the northernmost city in New Zealand and the regional capital of Northland Region. ... Dargaville is a town in the North Island of New Zealand. ... Waikato is the name of a region in the North Island of New Zealand. ... Before Present (BP) years are the units of time (counted backwards to the past) used to report raw radiocarbon ages and dates referenced to the BP scale origin in the year AD 1950 (identical to 1950 CE). ...

Kauri relies on wind as its means of both pollination and seed dispersal, whereas many other natives may have their seeds carried large distances by frugivores (animals which eat fruit) such as the kererū, a native pigeon. However, kauri trees rapidly reach a stage at which they can produce seeds, taking only 50 years or so before giving rise to their own offspring. This trait makes them somewhat like a pioneer species, despite the fact that their long lifespan is characteristic of k-selected species. A flower-fly pollinating a Common Daisy (Bellis perennis) Pollination is an important step in the reproduction of seed plants: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) to the plant carpel, the structure that contains the ovule (female gamete). ... Biological dispersal refers to those processes by which a species maintains or expands the distribution of a population. ... A frugivore is an animal that feeds primarily or less commonly exclusively on fruit. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae (Gmelin, 1789) The kererÅ« or New Zealand Pigeon (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae novaseelandiae (Gmelin)) is a bird endemic to New Zealand. ... Media:Example. ... K-selected species (or competitor species) is a term to describe reproductive and survival patterns in organisms. ...

Regeneration and life history

Female cone of Agathis australis, Auckland, New Zealand

Just as the niche of kauri is differentiated through its interactions with the soil, it also has a separate regeneration 'strategy' compared to its broadleaf neighbours. The relationship is very similar to the podocarp-broadleaf forests further south; kauri is much more light demanding and requires larger gaps to regenerate, whereas broadleaf trees such as puriri and kohekohe show far more shade tolerance. These species can regenerate in areas where lower levels of light reach ground level, for example from a single branch falling off. Kauri trees must therefore remain alive long enough for a large disturbance to occur, allowing them sufficient light to regenerate. In areas where large amounts of forest are destroyed, such as by logging, kauri seedlings are able to regenerate much easier due not only to increased sunlight, but their stronger resistance to wind and frosts. Kauri resides in the emergent layer of the forest, where it is exposed to the effects of the weather, however smaller trees that dominate the main canopy are sheltered both by the emergent trees above and by each other. Left in open areas without protection they are far less capable of regenerating. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 445 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1330 × 1791 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 445 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1330 × 1791 pixel, file size: 1. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Binomial name Vitex lucens Kirk The Puriri (Vitex lucens) is an evergreen tree found in New Zealand. ... Binomial name Dysoxylum spectabile Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile) is a medium-sized tree native to New Zealand. ... Shade tolerance is an ecological concept that refers to plants abilities to tolerate low light levels. ... In ecology, a disturbance is a temporary change in average environmental conditions that causes a pronounced change in ecosystem structure that lasts longer than the change in the environment. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Frost on black pipes Frost is a solid deposition of water vapor from saturated air. ...

Due to this special regeneration niche, kauri trees can live over a thousand years, whereas most other trees experience senescence long before this time. This extraordinary age is simply a reflection of how long this species must wait in order for there to be a disturbance large enough to favour its regeneration. The nature of this large disturbance also means that kauri trees regenerate en mass, resulting in a cohort or generation of trees of similar ages forming after each disturbance. Kauri in a given area are hence likely to be of similar age. Due to the nature of their regeneration, the distribution of kauri allows researchers to predict when and where disturbances have occurred, and how large they may have been; the presence of abundant kauri may be an indication that an area is prone to disturbances. Kauri seedlings still occur in areas with low light, of course, but mortality rates for such seedlings are much higher, and those that survive self thinning and grow to sapling stage tend to be found in higher light environments. It has been suggested that Longevity genes be merged into this article or section. ... Sunflower seedlings, just three days after germination In a botanical sense, germination is the process of emergence of growth from a resting stage. ... Crude death rate by country Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in some population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time. ...

During periods with less disturbances kauri tends to lose ground to broadleaf competitors which are more capable of establishing themselves in shaded environments. In the complete absence of disturbance, kauri tends to become more rare as it is excluded by its competitors. Biomass of kauri tends to decrease during such times, as more biomass becomes concentrated in angiosperm species like towai. Kauri trees also tend to become more randomly distributed in terms of their age, with each tree dying at a different point in time, and regeneration gaps being rare and sporadic. Over thousands of years these varying regeneration strategies produce a 'tug of war' effect where kauri retreats uphill during periods of calm, then takes over lower areas briefly during mass disturbances. Although such trends are impossible to observe in the lifetime of a human, research into current patterns of distribtuion, behavior of species in experimental conditions, and study of pollen sediments (see palynology) have helped shed light on the life history of kauri. Switchgrass, a hardy plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States Rice chaff. ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ... Pollen under microscope Palynology is the science that studies contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen, spores, dinoflagellate cysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans and scolecodonts, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and kerogen found in sedimentary rocks and sediments. ... Life history refers to a variety of methods and techniques that are used for conducting qualitative interviews. ...

Ethnobotany

Deforestation

Heavy logging which began around 1820 and continued for a century has considerably decreased the number of kauri trees in New Zealand.^[9] It has been estimated that prior to European colonisation, the kauri forests of northern New Zealand occupied at least 12,000 square kilometres. By the 1950s this area had decreased to about 1,400 km², comprising some 47 forests which were depleted of their best kauri. By 1900, less than 10% of the original kauri had survived. It is estimated that today, there is 4% of uncut forest left in small pockets. [1] Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land use such as arable land, pasture, urban use, logged area or wasteland. ...

Estimates are that around half of the timber had been accidentally or wilfully burnt. More than half of the remainder had been exported to Australia, Britain, and other countries, while the balance was used locally for building houses and ships.

Much of the timber was sold for a return sufficient only to cover wages and expenses, plus reasonable interest on the capital employed in the industry. From 1871 to 1895 the receipts indicate a rate of about 8 shillings (around NZD$20 in 2003)[2] per hundred superficial feet (34 shillings/m³). ^[10] The board foot is a specialized unit of volume for measuring lumber in the United States. ...

The Government continued to sell large areas of kauri forests to sawmillers who, under no restrictions, took the most effective and economical steps to secure the timber, resulting in much waste and destruction. At one sale in 1908 more than five thousand standing kauris, totalling about twenty million superficial feet (47,000 m³), were sold for less than two pounds per tree (two pounds in 1908 equates to around NZD$100 in 2003)[3].^[11] It is said that in 1890 the royalty on standing timber fell in some cases to as low as twopence (NZD$0.45 in 2003)[4] per hundred superficial feet (8 pence/m³), though the expense of cutting and removing it to the mills was typically great due to the difficult terrain they were located in.^[12]

Uses

Gum sold in Kauri Museum, New Zealand

Although today their use is far more restricted, in the past the size and strength of kauri timber made it a popular wood for construction and ship building, particularly for masts of sailing ships due to its parallel grain and the absence of branches extending for much of its height. Kauri crown and stump (tree) wood was much appreciated for its beauty, and was sought after for ornamental wood panelling as well as high-end furniture. Though not as highly prized, the light colour of kauri trunk wood made it also well-suited for more utilitarian furniture construction, as well as for use in the fabrication of cisterns, barrels, bridges construction material, fences, moulds for metal forges, large rollers for the textile industry, railroad ties and braces for mines and tunnels, among many others. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1000 × 750 pixel, file size: 160 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1000 × 750 pixel, file size: 160 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill Timber is a term used to describe wood, either standing or that has been processed for use—from the time trees are felled, to its end product as a material suitable for industrial use—as structural material for construction or wood... Trunks A tree trunk as found at the Veluwe, The Netherlands Wood is a solid material derived from woody plants, notably trees but also shrubs. ... Shipbuilding is the construction of ships. ... mizzen mast, mainmast and foremast Grand Turk The mast of a sailing ship is a tall vertical pole which supports the sails. ... Tree stump (about 37 years after felling) A tree stump on the Wicklow Mountains. ... Panelling is a wallcovering constructed from interlocking wooden components. ... welcome:: This is an article about items in a room. ... // Getting water out of a cistern A cistern (Middle English cisterne, from Latin cisterna, from cista, box, from Greek kistê, basket) is a receptacle for holding liquids, usually water. ... Barrel can refer to: Barrels for storage. ... A log bridge in the French Alps near Vallorcine. ... A fence in Westtown Township, Pennsylvania. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Textile manufacturing. ... Ferroconcrete sleepers A variant fastening of rails to wooden sleepers A railroad tie, cross tie, or sleeper is a rectangular object used as a base for railroad tracks. ...

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries kauri gum (semi-fossilised kauri resin) was a valuable commodity, particularly for varnish, and was the focus of a considerable industry at the time. Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Insect trapped in resin. ... Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily used in wood finishing but also for other materials. ...

Timber

Technical specifications

• Moisture content of dried wood: 12%
• Density of wood: 560 kg/m³
• Tensile strength: 88 MPa
• Modulus of elasticity: 9.1 GPa
• After felled kauri wood dries to a 12% moisture content, the tangential contraction is 4.1% and the radial contraction is 2.3%

A considerable number of kauri have been found buried in what are today salt marshes, resulting from ancient natural changes such as volcanic eruptions, sea level changes and floods. Such trees have been radiocarbon dated to originating as far back as 50,000 years ago or older. The bark and the seed cones of the trees often survive together with the trunk, although when excavated and in contact with the air, these parts display rapid deterioration. Tensile strength isthe measures the force required to pull something such as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the point where it breaks. ... The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the SI derived unit of pressure or stress (also: Youngs modulus and tensile strength). ... In solid mechanics, Youngs modulus (E) is a measure of the stiffness of a given material. ... An Atlantic coastal salt marsh in Connecticut. ... This article is about volcanoes in geology. ... For considerations of sea level change, in particular rise associated with possible global warming, see sea level rise. ... A flood (in Old English flod, a word common to Teutonic languages; compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float) is an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a deluge. ... Radiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 (14C) to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60,000 years[1]. Raw, i. ...

The quality of the disinterred wood varies, and some is in surprisingly good shape, comparable to that of newly-felled kauri, although often lighter in colour. This aspect can be improved by the use of natural dyes, which provide brown dark and greenish tones that heighten the details of the grain. After a drying process, such ancient kauri can still be made use of for furniture and other construction. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section needs to be wikified. ...

Conservation and kauri today

Tāne Mahuta ('Lord of the Forest')

In 1921 a philanthropic Cornishman named James Trounson sold to the Government for 40 thousand pounds, a large area adjacent to a few acres of crown land and said to contain at least four thousand kauris. From time to time Trounson had added further areas by way of gift, until what is known as Trounson Park comprised a total of 4 km². Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1448x2993, 2029 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Waipoua Forest ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1448x2993, 2029 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Waipoua Forest ...

The importance of Waipoua Forest in relation to the kauri was that it remained the only kauri forest retaining its former virgin condition, and that it was extensive enough to give reasonable promise of permanent survival. On 2 July 1952 an area of over 80 km² of Waipoua was proclaimed a forest sanctuary after a petition to the Government.^[13] Location of Waipoua Forest Waipoua Forest preserves some of the best examples of kauri forest remaining in New Zealand. ...

The small remaining pockets of kauri forest in New Zealand have survived in areas that were not subjected to burning by Māori settlers and were too inaccessible to European loggers. The largest area of mature kauri forest is Waipoua Forest in Northland. Mature and regenerating kauri can also be found in other National and Regional Parks such as Puketi and Omahuta Forests in Northland, the Waitakere Ranges near Auckland, and Coromandel Forest Park on the Coromandel Peninsula. The Northland Region (Māori: ), one of the 16 regions of New Zealand, is, as the name suggests, the northernmost of New Zealands administrative regions. ... The Waitakere Ranges are a chain of hills generally running approximately 25 km from north to south generally 25 km west of central Auckland, New Zealand. ... Location of Coromandel Peninsula A true-colour image showing Auckland city (left), the Hauraki Gulf (centre) and the Coromandel Peninsula (right). ...

The most famous specimens are Tāne Mahuta and Te Matua Ngahere in Waipoua Forest, a 25 km² forest which contains three quarters of New Zealand's remaining kauri. These two trees have become tourist attractions due to their size. Tane Mahuta, named after the Māori forest god, is the biggest existing kauri with a girth of 13.77 m (45.2 ft) and a trunk height of 17.68 m (58.0 ft). Tāne Mahuta is a giant kauri tree in the Waipoua Forest of Northland Region, New Zealand. ... Girth of Te Matua Ngahere compared with a person for scale. ... Languages Māori, English Religions Māori religion, Christianity Related ethnic groups other Polynesian peoples, Austronesian peoples The word Māori refers to the indigenous Polynesian peoples of New Zealand, and to their language. ... New Zealand rainforest In Māori mythology, Tāne (also Tāne Mahuta) is the god of forests and of birds, and the son of Ranginui and Papatuanuku, the sky father and the earth mother, who lie in a tight embrace. ...

Te Matua Ngahere, which means 'Father of the Forest', is smaller but stouter than Tane Mahuta, with a girth (circumference) of 16.41 m (53.8 ft). The circumference is the distance around a closed curve. ...

Kauri is common as a specimen tree in parks and gardens throughout New Zealand, prized for the distinctive look of young trees, its low maintenance once established (though seedlings are frost tender), and small footprint.

References

1. ^ Reed, p.60
2. ^ Reed, p.74
3. ^ Reed, p.89-92
4. ^ Reed p.62
5. ^ ^{a b c} Moinuddin Ahmed, John Ogden (1987). "Population dynamics of the emergent conifer Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl. (kauri) in New Zealand. Published in the New Zealand Journal of Botany, 1987, Vol. 25 : 217-229" (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
6. ^ Reed p.61-63
7. ^ Verkaik, Eric; Gardner, R.O.; Braakhekke, W.G. (2007). "Site conditions affect seedling distribution below and outside the crown of kauri trees (Agathis australis)". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 31 (1): 13-21. Retrieved on 2007-06-20. 
8. ^ ^{a b c} Ogden, J. (1992). "The Late Quaternary History of Kauri (Agathis australis) in New Zealand and Its Climatic Significance". Journal of Biogeography 19 (6): 611-622. 
9. ^ King p.125
10. ^ Reed p.74-75
11. ^ Reed p.267
12. ^ Reed p.79
13. ^ Reed p.268-269

• King, Michael (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. Penguin Books. ISBN 0143018671. 
• Reed, Alfred (1953). The Story of the Kauri. A.H. and A.W. Reed. 
• Conifer Specialist Group (2000). Agathis australis. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 11 May 2006.

PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... January 24 is the 24th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 issue cover The New Zealand Journal of Ecology is a biannual peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing ecological research relevant to New Zealand and the South Pacific. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is now the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Journal of Biogeography (Blackwell Publishing), first published in 1974, is the leading international science journal in the subject of biogeography. ... Dr Michael King OBE (15 December 1945 - 30 March 2004) was a widely respected Pakeha New Zealand historian, author and biographer. ... It has been suggested that Penguin Modern Poets, Penguin Great Ideas be merged into this article or section. ... Alfred Hamish Reed (1875-1975) New Zealand publisher, author and entrepreneur. ... Reed Publishing (NZ) Ltd. ... The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List and Red Data List), created in 1963, is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species and can be found here. ... The World Conservation Union or International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is an international organization dedicated to natural resource conservation. ...

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Agathis australis

• Kauri Gum entry from the 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
• New Zealand Department of Conservation page on Kauri
• Agathis australis description The Gymnosperm Database

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