Geography
History of geography Graeco-Roman Chinese Islamic Age of Discovery History of cartography Environmental determinism Regional geography Quantitative revolution Critical geography

See also: Age of Sail and Afro-Asiatic age of discovery

The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world in search of new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism^{[citation needed]} in Europe. They also were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Ferdinand Magellan. This article explores the history of geography. ... reconstruction of Hecataeus map Scylax of Caryanda Anaximander Hecataeus of Miletus Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Hellenistic period Pytheas (d. ... Map from Mahmud al-Kashgaris Diwanu Lughat at-Turk, showing the 11th century distribution of Turkic tribes. ... Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words). ... Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism, is the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture. ... Regional geography is a study of regions throughout the world in order to understand or define the unique characteristics of a particular region which consists of natural as well as human elements. ... The quantitative revolution was one of the four major turning points in the history of geography (the other three being regional geography, environmental determinism and critical geography). ... The critical geography is one of the four major turning points in the history of geography (the other three being environmental determinism, regional geography and quantitative revolution). ... Ortelius world map 1570 File links The following pages link to this file: Abraham Ortelius Wikipedia:WikiProject Maps/World Categories: NowCommons | Author died more than 100 years ago public domain images ... The age of sail is the period in which international trade and naval warfare were both dominated by sailing ships. ... The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the Muslim Agricultural Revolution,[1] Arab Agricultural Revolution,[2] or Green Revolution. ... Global Diplomacy (GD) and Age of Discovery (AoD) are two variants of a play-by-email wargame, run by E-Mail Games. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Capitalism (disambiguation). ... GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... This article is about the chemical element. ... External links Wikibooks Cookbook has more about this subject: Spice Food Bacteria-Spice Survey Shows Why Some Cultures Like It Hot Citat: ...Garlic, onion, allspice and oregano, for example, were found to be the best all-around bacteria killers (they kill everything). ... Explorer redirects here. ... Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator and colonialist who is one of the first Europeans to discover the Americas, after the Vikings. ... For other uses, see Vasco da Gama (disambiguation). ... For the Presidential railcar named Ferdinand Magellan, see Ferdinand Magellan Railcar. ...

The age of exploration was rooted in new technologies and ideas growing out of the Renaissance. These included advances in cartography, navigation, firepower and shipbuilding. Many people wanted to find a route to Asia through the west of Europe. The most important development was the invention of first the carrack and then caravel in Portugal. These vessels evolved from medieval European designs with a fruitful combination of Mediterranean and North Sea designs and the addition of some Arabic elements. They were the first ships that could leave the relatively placid and calm Mediterranean and sail safely on the open Atlantic. This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making maps or globes. ... Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... The Santa Maria at anchor by Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. ... Caravela Latina / Latin Caravel Caravela Redonda / Square-rigged Caravel A caravel is a small, highly maneuverable, two or three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish for long voyages of exploration beginning in the 15th century. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... The Atlantic Ocean is Earths second-largest ocean, covering approximately one_fifth of its surface. ...

[edit] Exploration by Land

The south-oriented map, made by Arab geographer al-Idrisi in 1154, was one of the most accurate world maps prior to the advent of the first portolans in the XIIIth century's Europe

The prelude to the Age of Exploration was a series of European expeditions crossing Eurasia by land in the late Middle Ages. While the Mongols had threatened Europe with pillage and destruction they also unified much of Eurasia creating trade routes and communication lines stretching from the Middle East to China (although land routes from Han Dynasty China to the Roman Empire existed beforehand, see Silk Road). A series of Europeans took advantage of these to explore eastwards. These were almost all Italians as the trade between Europe and the Middle East was almost completely controlled by traders from the Italian city states. Their close links to the Levant created great curiosity and commercial interest in what lay further east. The Papacy also launched expeditions in hopes of finding converts, or the fabled Prester John. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Al_Idrisis world map from 1154. ... A portolan is an early modern European navigation chart, dating from the fourteenth century or later, in manuscript, usually with rhumb lines, shorelines and place names. ... For other uses, see Eurasia (disambiguation). ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... Han Dynasty in 87 BC Capital Changan (202 BC–9 AD) Luoyang (25 AD–190 AD) Language(s) Chinese Religion Taoism, Confucianism Government Monarchy History  - Establishment 206 BC  - Battle of Gaixia; Han rule of China begins 202 BC  - Interruption of Han rule 9 - 24  - Abdication to Cao Wei 220... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... The Silk Road extending from Southern Europe through Arabia, Egypt, Persia, India till it reaches China. ... The Levant The Levant (IPA: ) is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ... The Pope is the Catholic Bishop and patriarch of Rome, and head of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches. ... Preste enthroned on a map of East Africa in an atlas prepared for Queen Mary, 1558. ...

The first of these travelers was Giovanni de Plano Carpini who journeyed to Mongolia and back from 1241–1247. The most famous traveler, however, was Marco Polo who wrote of journeys throughout Asia from 1271 to 1295 in which he described being a guest at the Yuan Dynasty court of Kublai Khan. His journey was written up as Travels and the work was read throughout Europe. In 1439, Niccolò Da Conti published an account of his travels to India and Southeast Asia. In 1466-1472, a Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin of Tver described travels to India in his book A Journey Beyond the Three Seas. Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, or John of Plano Carpini or Joannes de Plano (c. ... Marco Polo (September 15, 1254[1] – January 9, 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325[2]) was a Venetian trader and explorer who gained fame for his worldwide travels, recorded in the book Il Milione (The Million or The Travels of Marco Polo). ... Capital Dadu Language(s) Mongolian Chinese Government Monarchy Emperor  - 1260-1294 Kublai Khan  - 1333-1370 (Cont. ... For other uses, see Kublai Khan (disambiguation). ... A page of The Travels of Marco Polo The Travels of Marco Polo is the usual English title of Marco Polos travel book, Il Milione. ... Niccolò Da Conti (also Nicolò de Conti) (1395–1469) was a Venetian merchant and explorer, born in Chioggia, who traveled to India and Southeast Asia during the early 15th century. ... Image of Afanasy Nikitin on the label of a Tver beer with the same name Afanasy Nikitin (Афана́сий Ники́тин in Russian) (? - 1472) was a Russian traveler and writer and the first European to document his visit to India. ... Tvers coat of arms depicts grand ducal crown placed on a throne. ... A Journey Beyond the Three Seas (Хождение за три моря in Russian, or Khozhdeniye za tri morya) is a Russian literary monument in the form of travel notes, made by a merchant from Tver India in 1466...

These journeys had little immediate effect, however; the Mongol Empire collapsed almost as quickly as it formed and soon the route to the east became far more difficult and dangerous. The Black Death of the fourteenth century also blocked travel and trade. The land route to the East was always to be too long and difficult for profitable trade and it was also controlled by Islamic empires that had long battled the Europeans. The rise of the aggressive and expansionist Ottoman Empire further limited the possibilities for Europeans. This article concerns the mid fourteenth century pandemic. ... Ottoman redirects here. ...

[edit] Exploration begins in Portugal

Main article: Portugal in the Age of Discovery

The Fra Mauro map (1459) in Venice, provided one of the first practical descriptions of Europe, Africa and Asia.

It was not until the carrack and then the caravel were developed in Iberia that European thoughts returned to the fabled East. These explorations have a number of causes. Monetarists believe the main reason the Age of Exploration began was because of a severe shortage of bullion in Europe. The European economy was dependent on gold and silver currency, but low domestic supplies had plunged much of Europe into a recession. Another factor was the centuries long conflict between the Iberians and the Muslims to the south. The eastern trade routes were controlled by the Ottoman Empire after the Turks took control of Constantinople in 1453, and they barred Europeans from those trade routes.^[1] The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to their survival. At the same time, the Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbours. The carrack and caravel both incorporated the Arab lateen sail that made ships far more maneuverable. It was also through the Arabs that Ancient Greek geography was rediscovered, for the first time giving European sailors some idea of the shape of Africa and Asia. For additional context, see History of Portugal and Portuguese Empire. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1062x1107, 1015 KB) The Fra Mauro map. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1062x1107, 1015 KB) The Fra Mauro map. ... The Fra Mauro map (1459) in Venice (inverted, South is normally at the top). ... For other uses, see Venice (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ... The Santa Maria at anchor by Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. ... Caravela Latina / Latin Caravel Caravela Redonda / Square-rigged Caravel A caravel is a small, highly maneuverable, two or three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish for long voyages of exploration beginning in the 15th century. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar. ... Monetarism is a set of views concerning the determination of national income and monetary economics. ... A precious metal is a rare metallic element of high, durable economic value. ... The Silk Road extending from Southern Europe through Arabia, Egypt, Persia, India till it reaches China. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ... A lateen (from Latin) is a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. ... This article explores the history of geography. ...

The Santa Maria at anchor by Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. 1628 shows the famous carrack of Christopher Columbus.

The first great wave of expeditions was launched by Portugal under Prince Henry the Navigator. Sailing out into the open Atlantic the Madeira Islands were discovered in 1419, and in 1427 the Azores, both becoming Portuguese colonies. The main project of Henry the Navigator was exploration of the West Coast of Africa. For centuries the only trade routes linking West Africa with the Mediterranean world were over the Sahara Desert. These routes bringing slaves and gold were controlled by the Muslim states of North Africa, long rivals to Portugal and Spain. It was the Portuguese hope that the Islamic nations could be bypassed by trading directly with West Africa by sea. It was also hoped that south of the Sahara the states would be Christian and potential allies against the Muslims in the Maghreb. The Portuguese navigators made slow but steady progress, each year managing to push a few miles further south, and in 1434 the obstacle of Cape Bojador was overcome. In the bull Romanus Pontifex the trade monopoly for newly discoverd countries beyond Cape Bojador was granted to the Portuguese^[2]. Download high resolution version (700x857, 110 KB)The Santa Maria at anchor by Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. ... Download high resolution version (700x857, 110 KB)The Santa Maria at anchor by Andries van Eertvelt, painted c. ... The Santa Maria was the largest of the three ships used by Christopher Columbus in his first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492. ... 1628 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator and colonialist who is one of the first Europeans to discover the Americas, after the Vikings. ... Infante Henrique of Portugal, Duke of Viseu KG (Porto, March 4, 1394 – Sagres, November 13, 1460); pron. ... Location Motto of the autonomous region: Das ilhas, as mais belas e livres (Portuguese: Of the islands, the most beautiful and free) Official language Portuguese Capital Funchal Other towns Porto Santo, Machico, Santa Cruz, Câmara de Lobos, Santana, Ribeira Brava, Caniço Area 797 km² Population  - Total (1991)  - Density... Motto (Portuguese for Rather die free than in peace subjugated) Anthem  (national)  (local) Capital Ponta Delgada1 Angra do Heroísmo2 Horta3 Largest city Ponta Delgada Official languages Portuguese Government Autonomous region  -  President Carlos César Establishment  -  Settled 1439   -  Autonomy 1976  Area  -  Total 2,333 km² (n/a) 911 sq mi... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb[1] West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... The Sahara is the worlds second largest desert (second to Antarctica), over 9,000,000 km² (3,500,000 mi²), located in northern Africa and is 2. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Islam and slavery. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Cape Bojador is a headland on the northern coast of Moroccos Western Sahara province, just below latitude 27° North. ... A Papal bull is a particular type of patent or charter issued by a pope. ... The Romanus Pontifex[1] is a papal bull written January 8, 1455 by Pope Nicholas V to King Afonso V of Portugal. ...

Within two decades, the barrier of the Sahara had been overcome and trade in slaves and gold began in what is today Senegal. Progress continued as trading forts were built at Elmina and São Tomé e Príncipe became the first sugar producing colony. In 1482 an expedition under Diogo Cão made contact with the Kingdom of Kongo. The crucial breakthrough was in 1487 when Bartolomeu Dias rounded (and later named) the Cape of Good Hope and proved that access to the Indian Ocean was possible. In 1498 Vasco da Gama made good on this promise by reaching India. Elmina fishing fleet Elmina is a town situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, lying west of Cape Coast. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely traded commodity. ... The pillar bearing the arms of Portugal erected by Cão at Cape St. ... The Kingdom of Congo (now usually rendered as Kingdom of Kongo to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations) The Kingdom of Kongo (c. ... Statue of Dias in Cape Town, South Africa Bartolomeu Dias, sometimes Bartolomeu Dias de Novais (pron. ... For other uses, see Cape of Good Hope (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Vasco da Gama (disambiguation). ...

The Cantino planisphere (1502), one of the oldest surviving Portuguese nautical charts, showing the results of the explorations of Vasco da Gama's to India, Columbus' to Central America and Pedro Álvares Cabral's to Brazil. The meridian of Tordesillas, separating the Portuguese and Spanish halves of the world is also depicted

Main article: European colonization of the Americas

Portugal's rival Castile had been somewhat slower than its neighbour to begin exploring the Atlantic, and it was not until late in the fifteenth century that Castilian sailors began to compete with their Iberian neighbours. The first contest was for control of the Canary Islands, which Castile won. It was not until the union of Aragon and Castile and the completion of the reconquista that the large nation became fully committed to looking for new trade routes and colonies overseas. In 1492 the joint rulers of the nation conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada, that had been providing Castile with African goods through its tribute, and they decided to fund Christopher Columbus' expedition that they hoped would bypass Portugal's lock on Africa and the Indian Ocean reaching Asia by travelling west. Image File history File links Cantino_Planisphere. ... Image File history File links Cantino_Planisphere. ... For other uses, see Vasco da Gama (disambiguation). ... Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator and colonialist who is one of the first Europeans to discover the Americas, after the Vikings. ... Pedro Álvares (about 1467 – about 1520), pron. ... The Crest of Tordesillas Tordesillas is a village and municipality in the province of Valladolid, part of the autonomous community of Castile-Leon in central Spain. ... Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750. ... The starting point of Crown of Castile can be considered when the union of the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon in 1230 or the later fusion of their Cortes (their Parlaments). ... Anthem: Arrorró Capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 13th  7,447 km²  1. ... Coat of arms of Aragon, 15th century The Crown of Aragon is a term used to refer to the permanent union of multiple titles and states in the hands of the King of Aragon. ... For other senses of this word, see Reconquista (disambiguation). ... The City of Granada Alhambra, Courtyard of the Lions Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in Spain. ... Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator and colonialist who is one of the first Europeans to discover the Americas, after the Vikings. ...

Columbus did not reach Asia, but rather found a New World, America. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator, Pedro Álvares Cabral also discovered the land that is today called Brazil. The issue of defining areas of influence became critical, being resolved by Papal intervention in 1494 when the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the world between the two powers. The Portuguese "received" everything outside of Europe east of a line that ran 270 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands; this gave them control over Africa, Asia and eastern South America (Brazil). The Spanish received everything west of this line, territory that was still almost completely unknown, and proved to be mostly the western part of the American continent plus the Pacific Ocean islands. Frontispiece of Peter Martyr dAnghieras De orbe novo (On the New World). Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, 1722. ... World map showing the Americas CIA political map of the Americas The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the continents of North America[1] and South America with their associated islands and regions. ... Pedro Álvares (about 1467 – about 1520), pron. ... Cantino planisphere of 1502 depicting the meridian designated by the treaty. ... For other uses, see league. ...

Columbus and other Spanish explorers were initially disappointed with their discoveries - unlike Africa or Asia the Caribbean islanders had little to trade with the Spanish ships. The islands thus became the focus of colonization efforts. It was not until the continent itself was explored that Spain found the wealth it had sought in the form of abundant gold. In the Americas the Spanish found a number of empires that were as large and populous as those in Europe. However, small bodies of Spanish conquistadors, with large armies of allied natives, managed to conquer them. The most notable amongst the conquered nations were the Aztec empire in Mexico (conquered in 1521) and the Inca empire in modern Peru and Ecuador (conquered in 1532). During this time, pandemics of European disease such as Smallpox devastated the indigenous populations, helping greatly in the conquest. Once Spanish sovereignty was established, the main focus would eventually become the extraction and export of gold and especially silver, though other goods were also traded. Conquistador (Spanish: kōn-kē-stŏ-dōr) (meaning Conqueror in the Spanish language) is the term used to refer to the soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas and Asia Pacific under Spanish colonial rule between the 15th and 17th centuries, starting with the 1492 settlement... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... For the a general view of Inca civilisation, people and culture, see Incas. ... This article is about large epidemics. ...

In 1519, the same year that Cortez's army landed in Mexico the Spanish crown funded the expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese (it was not an uncommon practice in those pre-nationalistic times for the various seafaring countries to employ experienced navigators from other countries - usually Portuguese or Italians). The goal of the mission was similar to Columbus' goal: the objective of Magellan was to find the Spice Islands by traveling west, and thus placing them in the Spanish sphere. The expedition was a success and became the first to circumnavigate the world upon its return three years later, though Magellan died in the Pacific, leaving the spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano the task of completing the voyage. The voyage would lead eventually to Spain establishing a presence in the Pacific which was for a long time crossed by the Manila galleons, thereby creating a trade link joining China, the Americas and Europe via the trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic routes. For the Presidential railcar named Ferdinand Magellan, see Ferdinand Magellan Railcar. ... Spice Islands most commonly refers to the Maluku Islands (formerly the Moluccas), which lie on the equator, between Sulawesi (Celebes) and New Guinea in what is now Indonesia. ... “Round the world” redirects here. ... Juan Sebastián Elcano Juan Sebastián Elcano statue in Guetaria For the Spanish training ship, see Juan Sebastián Elcano (Spanish ship). ... The Manila Galleons were Spanish galleons that sailed once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean between Manila in the Philippines and Acapulco in New Spain (now Mexico). ...

[edit] Decline of the Portuguese monopoly

Portuguese exploration and colonization continued despite the new rivalry with Spain. The Portuguese became the first Westerners to reach and trade with Japan. Under the King Manuel I the Portuguese crown launched a scheme to keep control of the lands and trade routes that had been declared theirs. The strategy was to build a series of forts that would allow them to control all the major trade routes of the east. Thus forts and colonies were established on the Gold Coast, Luanda, Mozambique, Zanzibar, Mombassa, Socotra, Ormuz, Calcutta, Goa, Bombay, Malacca, Macau, and Timor. The Portuguese also controlled Brazil, which had been discovered in 1500 by Pedro Álvares Cabral and was partly on the Portuguese side of the global "divide" set at Tordesillas. Manuel I of Portugal (pron. ... Flag of Gold Coast Map from 1896 of the British Gold Coast Colony. ... Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the largest city and capital of Angola. ... Map of Zanzibars main island Zanzibar is part of Tanzania Coordinates: , Country Tanzania Islands Unguja and Pemba Capital Zanzibar City Settled AD 1000 Government  - Type semi-autonomous part of Tanzania  - President Amani Abeid Karume Area  - Both Islands  637 sq mi (1,651 km²) Population (2004)  - Both Islands 1,070... Mombasa is the second largest city in Kenya. ... Map of the Socotra archipelago Socotra or Soqotra (Arabic سقطرى ; ) is a small archipelago of four islands and islets in the Indian Ocean off the coast of the Horm Africa some 350 km south of the Arabian peninsula. ... Ormus (also Ohrmuzd, Hormuz, Ohrmazd) was a kingdom in the 16th to 17th centuries around the Persian Gulf, in particular the Strait of Hormuz. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... For other uses, see Goa (disambiguation). ... This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... This article is about the state in Malaysia. ... Timor is an island at the south end of the Malay Archipelago, divided between the independent state of East Timor, and West Timor, part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara with the surface of 11,883 sq mi (30,777 km²). The name is a variant of timur... Pedro Álvares (about 1467 – about 1520), pron. ... Cantino planisphere of 1502 depicting the meridian designated by the treaty. ...

Portugal had difficulty expanding its empire inland and concentrated mostly on the coastal areas. Over time the nation proved to simply be too small to provide the funds and manpower sufficient to manage and defend such a massive and dispersed venture. The forts spread across the world were chronically undermanned and ill-equipped. They could not compete with the larger powers that slowly encroached on its empire and trade. The days of near monopoly of east trade were numbered. In 1580 the Spanish King Philip II became also King of Portugal, as rightful heir to the Crown after his cousin Sebastião died without sons (Philip II of Spain was grandson of Manuel I of Portugal). The combined empires were simply too big to go unchallenged. The Dutch, French and English explorers ignored the Papal division of the world. The principle of a free seafaring trade was justified in the concept of Mare Liberum by the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius^[2][3]. During the 17th century as the Dutch, English and French established ever more trading posts in the east, at the expense of Portugal, the wealth gained added to their military might while Portugal's weakened as it lost trading posts and colonies in West Africa, the Middle East and the Far East. Bombay was given away to the English as a marriage gift. Some, like Macau, East Timor, Goa, Angola, and Mozambique, as well as Brazil, remained in Portuguese possession. The Dutch attempted to conquer Brazil, and at one time controlled almost half of the occupied territory, but were eventually defeated. Events March 1 - Michel de Montaigne signs the preface to his most significant work, Essays. ... Inter caetera (Among other [works]) was a papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI on May 4, 1493, which granted to Spain (the Crowns of Castile and Aragon) all lands to the west and south of a pole-of-pole line 100 leagues (418 km) west and south of any... A jurist is a professional who studies, develops, applies or otherwise deals with the law. ... Hugo Grotius (Huig de Groot, or Hugo de Groot; Delft, 10 April 1583 – Rostock, 28 August 1645) worked as a jurist in the Dutch Republic and laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ...

[edit] Northern European involvement

The nations outside of Iberia refused to acknowledge the Treaty of Tordesillas. France, the Netherlands, and England each had a long maritime tradition and, despite Iberian protections, the new technologies and maps soon made their way north. Motto Dieu et mon droit(French) God and my right Territory of the Kingdom of England Capital Winchester; London from 11th century Language(s) Old English (de facto, until 1066) Anglo-Norman language (de jure, 1066 - 15th century) English (de facto, gradually replaced French from late 13th century) Government Monarchy...

The first of these missions (1497) was that of the English expedition led by the Italian, John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto). It was the first of a series of French and English missions exploring North America. Spain put limited efforts into exploring the northern part of the Americas as its resources were fully stretched by its efforts in Central and South America where more resources had been found.^[4] In 1525, Giovanni da Verrazzano became the first recorded European to visit the East Coast of the present-day United States. The expeditions of Cabot, Jacques Cartier (first voyage 1534) and others were mainly hoping to find the Northwest Passage and thus a link to the riches of Asia. This was never discovered, but in their travels other possibilities were found and in the early seventeenth century colonists from a number of Northern European states began to settle on the east coast of North America. John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto; fl. ... Giovanni Caboto (c. ... North America North America is a continent[1] in the Earths northern hemisphere and (chiefly) western hemisphere. ... Giovanni da Verrazzano (c. ... For other uses, see Jacques Cartier (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Northwest Passage (disambiguation). ...

It was the northerners who also became the great rivals to the Portuguese in Africa and around the Indian Ocean. Dutch, French, and English ships began to flout the Portuguese monopoly and found trading forts and colonies of their own. Gradually the Portuguese and Spanish market and possession share declined, the new entrants surrounding many of their most valuable possessions (like Hong Kong being next to Macau). The northern Europeans also took the lead in exploring the last unknown regions of the Pacific Ocean and the North-American west coast, which was in the Spanish part of the Tordesillas divide. Dutch explorers such as Willem Jansz and Abel Tasman explored the coasts of Australia while in the eighteenth century it was English explorer James Cook who mapped much of Polynesia. Cantino planisphere of 1502 depicting the meridian designated by the treaty. ... Willem Jansz (c. ... Portrait of Tasman Abel Janszoon Tasman (1603 - October 10, 1659), was a Dutch seafarer, explorer, and merchant. ... This article is about the British explorer. ... Carving from the ridgepole of a Māori house, ca 1840 Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a large grouping of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. ...

[edit] End of the Age of Exploration

The age of exploration is generally said to have ended in the early seventeenth century. By this time European vessels were well enough built and their navigators competent enough to travel to virtually anywhere on the planet. Exploration, of course, continued. The east coast of Australia was first explored only in 1770. Arctic and Antarctic seas were not explored until the 19th century. It also took much longer for Europeans to explore the interiors of continents.^[5] Africa's deep interior was not explored by Europeans until the mid to late 19th and early 20th centuries, due to a lack of trade potential in this region, and to serious problems with contagious tropical diseases in sub-Saharan Africa and the then powerful Muslim Ottoman empire in the north. Colonialism declined in the 20th century. Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Tropical diseases are infectious diseases that either occur uniquely in tropical and subtropical regions (which is rare) or, more commonly, are either more widespread in the tropics or more difficult to prevent or control. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999...

[edit] See also

• Age of Sail
• Chinese exploration
• Colonialism
• Exploration
• History of the west coast of North America
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
• Naval history
• Columbian Exchange

The age of sail is the period in which international trade and naval warfare were both dominated by sailing ships. ... Chinese exploration was an age of exploratory Chinese travels abroad, on land and by sea, from the 2nd century BC until the 15th century. ... It has been suggested that Benign colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... Explorer redirects here. ... The west coast of North America consists of the modern American states of California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and arguably Alaska and parts of the Yukon. ... Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contacts were interactions between the indigenous peoples of the Americas and peoples of other continents – Europe, Africa, Asia, or Oceania – before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. ... Naval warfare is combat in and on seas and oceans. ... Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples, such as quinua and potatoes, alongside wheat, a European import. ...

[edit] References

1. ^ Rankin, Rebecca B., Cleveland Rodgers (1948). "Chapter 1", New York: the World's Capital City, Its Development and Contributions to Progress. Harper. 
2. ^ ^{a b} Daus, Ronald (1983). Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus. Wuppertal/Germany: Peter Hammer Verlag, p.33. ISBN 3-87294-202-6. 
3. ^ whose practical application of the principles of international law drew on the work of Spanish theorists such as Fernando Vazquez and the the School of Salamanca
4. ^ Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led a Spanish expedition to what is now Kansas in 1541
5. ^ Francisco de Orellana crossed the Amazon Basin in 1541-1542

There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... The School of Salamanca is the renaissance of thought in diverse intellectual areas by Spanish theologians, rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical work of Francisco de Vitoria. ... Coronado Sets Out to the North, by Frederic Remington, 1861-1909 Francisco Vázquez de Coronado (ca. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... A Spanish postal stamp featuring Orellana Francisco de Orellana (c1500-c1549) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador. ...

[edit] Other references

• Cipolla, Carlo Cipolla. European Culture and Overseas Expansion. 
• DeVoto, Bernard (1952). The Course of Empire. Houghton Mifflin. 
• Fiske, John (1892). The Discovery of America: With Some Account of Ancient America and the Spanish Conquest. Houghton Mifflin. 
• O'Sullivan, Daniel. The Age of Discovery. 
• Perry, J.H.. The Discovery of the Sea. 
• Penrose, Boies. Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance: 1420–1620. 
• Sletcher, Michael Sletcher (2005). "British Explorers and the Americas", in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson: Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. Oxford University Press. 
• Wright, John K. (March 1947). "Terrae Incognitae: The Place of the Imagination in Geography". Annals of the Association of American Geographers 37(1): pp. 1-15. 

Bernard Augustine DeVoto (January 11, 1897 - November 13, 1955) was an American historian and author who specialized in the history of the American West. ...