Primogeniture is inheritance by the first-born of the entirety of a parent's wealth, estate or office, or in the absence of children, by collateral relatives in order of seniority of the collateral line. It is often used in monarchies. As a mechanism of succession in hereditary monarchies, some sort of primogeniture has for long been the most used, but it is not the only nor even the probably oldest method. For other mechanisms of inheritance in hereditary monarchies, see Order of succession, and see also elective monarchy). Primogeniture became the most common method of succession in hereditary monarchies as a slow development correlating with the development of the average lifespan in wealthier classes (particularly with the wealth of a monarch's family) increasing to a level where the eldest children of a parent were, in average, more or less adult at the time of the death of the parent. This correlated with the wealthier and healthier conditions and food, and with less personal participation in violent activities such as warring, marauding, robber expeditions and duels. For related meanings see also Monarch (disambiguation) A monarchy, (from the Greek monos, one, and archein, to rule) is a form of government that has a monarch as Head of State. ... A hereditary monarchy is the most common style of monarchy and is the form that is used by almost all of the worlds existing monarchies. ... An order of succession is a formula or algorithm that determines who inherits an office upon the death, resignation, or removal of its current occupant. ... An elective monarchy is a monarchy whose reigning king or queen is elected in some form. ...

Definitions

Agnatic primogeniture or patrilineal primogeniture ( a form of male primogeniture) is inheritance by the eldest surviving male child, with females excluded. This is sometimes referred to as a form of Salic law. Male primogeniture happens at least in two known systems: Agnatic Primogeniture and Quasi-Salic Succession . Only males may succeed to the throne. The mentioned two forms are distinct depending on whether a female is accepted as transfer of succession rights, or not. The word male has the following meanings: In biology, it refers to one half of a heterogamous reproduction system, where the female is the other half. ... The King of the Franks, in the midst of the Military Chiefs who formed his Treuste, or armed Court, dictates the Salic Law (Code of the Barbaric Laws). ...

Male-preference primogeniture is inheritance by the eldest surviving male child, but females may inherit provided the subject has no sons. The term agnatic-cognatic primogeniture is used in the same meaning. This is the usual feudal primogeniture in the Western European culture. An earlier definition of "cognatic primogeniture" referred to any form of primogeniture which allows females, but today it almost always refers to equal primogeniture (below). The word male has the following meanings: In biology, it refers to one half of a heterogamous reproduction system, where the female is the other half. ... Feudalism comes from the Late Latin word feudum, itself borrowed from a Germanic root *fehu, a commonly used term in the Middle Ages which means fief, or land held under certain obligations by feodati. ...

Absolute, equal or lineal primogeniture is inheritance by the oldest surviving child without regard to gender. It is also known as cognatic primogeniture today. This system was virtually unknown in monarchies until the late 20th century - for centuries until its invention, females, if entitled to succeed at all, were at least surpassed by a consistent preference of males. The first country to adopt fully equal primogeniture was Sweden in 1980. The beneficiary of this was Victoria of Sweden. Several other monarchies have since followed, such as Belgium, the Netherlands and Norway (with Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway as second in line to the throne after her father, Crown Prince Haakon). In Japan, there are currently debates over whether to adopt lineal or some form of mixed primogeniture, as Princess Aiko is the firstborn of Crown Prince Naruhito. The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige  listen) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. ... 1980 is a leap year starting on Tuesday. ... HRH Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden Her Royal Highness Crown Princess Victoria, Victoria Ingrid Alice Desirée, (born July 14, 1977), Duchess of Westregothia, is the heir apparent of Sweden, being the first-born child of King Carl XVI Gustaf and his commoner Queen Silvia. ... The Kingdom of Belgium (Dutch: Koninkrijk België, French: Royaume de Belgique, German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in Western Europe, bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, France, and the North Sea. ... The Netherlands (Dutch: Nederland) is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Dutch: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). ... Norway - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway (born January 21, 2004) is a Norwegian princess. ... Crown Prince Haakon Magnus His Royal Highness, Crown Prince Haakon Magnus of Norway was born July 20, 1973 in Oslo. ... Official language Japanese Capital Tokyo Largest City Tokyo Emperor Akihito Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi Area  - Total  - % water Ranked 60th 377,835 km² 0. ... Aiko (愛子), titled Princess Toshi (敬宮 Toshi-no-miya) (born December 1, 2001) is the first child (daughter) of Crown Prince Naruhito and Crown Princess Masako Owada of Japan. ... A Crown Prince or Crown Princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. ... Prince Naruhito and Princess Masako Naruhito (徳仁), Crown Prince of Japan (Hiro no miya Naruhito Shinnō or Naruhito Kotaishi), (born at Tsugo Palace, Tokyo February 23, 1960) is the elder son of the Emperor Akihito and the Empress Michiko. ...

No known monarchy applies matrilineal primogeniture (uterine primogeniture) or any other form of hereditary succession to total exclusion of males. There have been some theoretical ideas of ancient Egypt having applied matrilineal succession, but it was at least not constant nor consistent. We may expect that some cult of high priestesses will be someday revealed to have applied fully matrilineal succession, even up to total exclusion of males even as transfers of succession rights.

Historical Examples

A case of agnatic primogeniture is exemplified in the French royal milieu, the Salic Law (attributed to the Salian Franks) forbade any inheritance of a crown through the female line. This accounts for the dispute over the legitimate successor of Charles IV of France (Edward III of England or Philip VI of France), the separation between Hanover (where Ernest I succeeded) and the United Kingdom upon the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837, the separation of the ducal house of Luxembourg from that of the Netherlands, and partially explains the role of Carlism in Spain. The French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. ... The King of the Franks, in the midst of the Military Chiefs who formed his Treuste, or armed Court, dictates the Salic Law (Code of the Barbaric Laws). ... The Salian Dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire was founded by Conrad II (c. ... The Franks were one of several west Germanic tribes who entered the late Roman Empire from Frisia as foederati and established a lasting realm in an area that covers most of modern-day France and the region of Franconia in Germany, forming the historic kernel of both these two modern... Charles IV the Fair ( French: Charles IV le Bel) ( 1294 – February 1, 1328), a member of the Capetian Dynasty, reigned as King of France from 1322 to 1328. ... Edward III King of England Edward III (13 November 1312–21 June 1377) was one of the most successful English Kings of medieval times. ... Philip VI of Valois (French: Philippe VI de Valois; 1293–August 22, 1350) was the King of France from 1328 to his death. ... Alternate meanings: Hanover (district), Hanover (region), Hanover (state), other uses Map of Germany showing Hanover Hanover (in German: Hannover [haˈnoːfɐ]), on the Leine river, is the capital of the state of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen) in Germany. ... Ernest Augustus I of Hanover Ernest Augustus I, King of Hanover (5 June 1771 - 18 November 1851), also known (1799-1837) as the Duke of Cumberland was the fifth son and eighth child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. ... The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a country in western Europe, and member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the G8, the European Union, and NATO. Usually known simply as the United Kingdom, the UK, or (inaccurately) as Great Britain or Britain, the UK has four constituent... Victoria Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria) (24 May 1819–22 January 1901) was a Queen of the United Kingdom, reigning from 20 June 1837 until her death. ... Events January 10 - DePauw University founded in Greencastle, Indiana January 26 - Michigan is admitted as the 26th U.S. state February 8 - Richard Johnson becomes the first Vice President of the United States chosen by the United States Senate February 11 - American Physiological Society organizes in Boston February 13 - Rowland... The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a small landlocked state in the north-west of the continental European Union, bordered by France, Germany and Belgium. ... The Netherlands (Dutch: Nederland) is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Dutch: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). ... Carlism was a conservative political movement in Spain, purporting to establish an alternative branch of the Bourbons in the Spanish throne. ... The Kingdom of Spain or Spain (Spanish and Galician: Reino de España or España; Catalan: Regne dEspanya; Basque: Espainiako Erresuma) is a country located in the southwest of Europe. ...

From Middle Ages, we have one practical system of succession in primogeniture, so-called Quasi-Salic inheritance: succession is allowed also through female line, just females themselves do not inherit, but the sons of females do. (For example, a grandfather, without sons, is succeeded by his grandson, a son of his daughter, when the daughter in question is yet alive. Or an uncle, without own children, is succeeded by his nephew, a son of his sister, when the sister in question is yet alive.) This actually fulfills the Salic condition of "no land comes to a woman, but the land comes to the male sex".

The most common hereditary system in feudal Europe was based on a form of primogeniture, where a lord was succeeded by his eldest son, and failing sons, by either daughters or by sons of daughters. Great Britain and Spain, where also females are allowed to succeed, are today continuing this old model of succession law. In most medieval Western European feudal fiefs, females (such as daughters and sisters) were allowed to succeed, brothers failing, but usually the husband of the heiress became the real lord and most often also got title, iure uxoris.

In more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes could have been idiosyncratic. Proximity meant that a heir closer in degrees of kinship to the lord in question was given precedence although that heir was not necessarily the primogenitural heir. For distance between people, see proxemics. ...

• For example, the succession of Duchy of Burgundy in 1361 was resolved in favor of John, son of a younger daughter, on basis of proximity, because he was a closer cousin of the dead duke than Charles, the grandson of the elder daughter. Proximity sometimes favored younger lines (directly contrary to the outcome from applying primogeniture), since it was more probable that from a younger line, a member of "earlier" generation was yet alive than among the descendants of the eldest.
• In dispute over the succession of the Kingdom of Scotland 1290-91, the Bruce family pleaded tanistry and proximity, whereas Balliol primogeniture. The arbiter, Edward I of England, decided in favor of primogeniture. But later, the Independence Wars reverted the situation in favor of the Bruce, however, not because of legal arguments, but because of positions in the war and capability and sheer luck.
• The Earldom of Gloucester (in the beginning of 14th century) went to full sisters of the dead earl, not to earl's half-sister(s) who was/were elder, having been born of father's first marriage, when the earl himself was from 2nd marriage (full siblings were regarded more close, higher in proximity, than half-siblings).

However, primogeniture increasedly won legal cases over proximity in later centuries. Philip I of Burgundy, also known as Philip of Rouvres (1346–November 21, 1361) was duke of Burgundy between 1349 and 1361. ... After the death of the young Margaret I of Scotland in 1290, the Crown of Scotland was without an heir. ...

Later, when lands were strictly divided among noble families and tended to remain fixed, agnatic primogeniture (practically the same as Salic Law) became the most usual: succession going to the eldest son of the monarch; if the monarch had no sons, the throne would pass to the nearest male relative through male line. The King of the Franks, in the midst of the Military Chiefs who formed his Treuste, or armed Court, dictates the Salic Law (Code of the Barbaric Laws). ...

Some countries however accepted female rulers early on, so that if the monarch had no sons, the throne would pass to the eldest daughter. (This sort of primogeniture was the rule that let Elizabeth II become Queen.) Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary) (born 21 April 1926), styled HM The Queen, is the Queen regnant and Head of State of the United Kingdom, as well as the Queen of Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea...

In England, primogeniture was mandatory for inheritance of land. Until the Statute of Wills was passed in 1540, a will could only control the inheritance of personal property. Real estate (land) passed to the eldest male descendant by operation of law. The statute added a provision that a landowner could "devise" land by the use of a new device called a "testament". Events January 6 - King Henry VIII of England marries Anne of Cleves, his fourth Queen consort. ...

Preference for males, existing in most systems of primogeniture (and in other mechanisms of hereditary succession) comes mostly from the perceived nature of the tasks and role of the monarch: A monarch most usually was, firstly and foremostly, a military protector.

• His income was very dependent on protection money collected from those people he was in office of protecting against wars, violence, crimes, other injustices (already in those times, this sort of protection money, more or less extorted from people by use or threat of the violent powers of the protector himself, was labelled by the less-infuriating terms "tax" and "duty", and as we all know, those forms of revenue-collecting have continued into our less-monarchical governments, too).
• It was very useful, or even requisite, that the monarch be a warrior, and a commander of military. And, also, war troops (consisting typically only of males) were perceived to approve only males as their commanders, or even warriors.
• Additionally, in some monarchies (such as France), the monarch held a certain mystical position, some task best described as priestly position (high priest or demigod). That sort of position was, depending on the tradition in question, often denied of females. In the French monarchy, one of the official explanations for the Salic Law was that the monarch was obliged to use certain sacred instruments, which females are forbidden even to touch.

The King of the Franks, in the midst of the Military Chiefs who formed his Treuste, or armed Court, dictates the Salic Law (Code of the Barbaric Laws). ...

Principles of Succession which conflict with Primogeniture, and Comparisons

Proximity or seniority mean that power rests tighter in hands of older generation and also that monarchs have shorter reigns. They tend to lead to some form of partition of the inheritance.

Primogeniture has often meant underage monarchs and regency arrangements. Primogeniture tends to keep the inheritance undivided and even in increase.

Arguments in favour of primogeniture

Primogeniture prevents the subdivision of estates and diminishes internal pressures to sell property (for example, if two children inherit a house and one cannot afford to buy out the other's share). In England most younger sons of the nobility, having no prospect of inheriting land or property, were obliged to seek careers in the Church, the Armed Forces or in Government. In the late 17th and early 18th Centuries, many specifically chose to leave England for Virginia in the Colonies. Most, if not almost all, of the early Virginians who were plantation owners were such younger sons who had left England because of primogeniture laws. These Founding Fathers of the United States were nearly universally descended from the landed gentry of England, with many being descended from English Kings of the late 14th and early 15th Centuries, especially through the prodigious offspring of Edward III of England. Edward III King of England Edward III (13 November 1312–21 June 1377) was one of the most successful English Kings of medieval times. ...

Arguments against primogeniture

The fact that the eldest son "scooped the pool" often led to ill-feeling amongst younger sons (and of course daughters). Through marriage, estates were combined and some nobles achieved wealth and power sufficient to pose a threat even to the crown itself.

Other methods of succession

There are several other ways to organize hereditary succession, which produce more or less different outcome than primogeniture. Some examples of widely used methods of alternative order of succession:

• Seniority
• Tanistry
• Degree of Proximity
• Elective monarchy, election from among one family
• "Lottery"
• Rotation (Taking turns: seniority, tanistry, lottery and election are used and practical ways to organize rotation. Rotation may have aimed at some balance between branches of the House or the Clan.)

Non-hereditary succession is most easily organized by using election as the method. In hereditary monarchies, particularly in more ancient or in more underdeveloped times, seniority was a much used principle of order of succession. ... Tanistry (from Gaelic tana, lordship) was a custom among various Celtic tribes, by which the king or chief of the clan was chosen from among the heads of the septs and elected by them in full assembly. ... For distance between people, see proxemics. ... An elective monarchy is a monarchy whose reigning king or queen is elected in some form. ... A lottery is a popular form of gambling which involves the drawing of lots for a prize. ... An elective monarchy is a monarchy whose reigning king or queen is elected in some form. ...

See also

• Order of succession
• Salic Law
• Monarch
• Succession laws
• Heir apparent
• Heir presumptive
• Nobility
• Royal family

An order of succession is a formula or algorithm that determines who inherits an office upon the death, resignation, or removal of its current occupant. ... The King of the Franks, in the midst of the Military Chiefs who formed his Treuste, or armed Court, dictates the Salic Law (Code of the Barbaric Laws). ... This article treats the generic title monarch. ... Introduction Succession laws are used for determining who will be the next heir to the throne of a kingdom, principality, etc. ... Contrasting with heir presumptive, an heir apparent is one who cannot be prevented from inheriting by the birth of any other person. ... An heir presumptive is one who is first in line to inherit a title or property, such as a monarchy, because there is not yet an heir apparent. ... The Lords and Barons prove their Nobility by hanging their Banners and exposing their Coats-of-arms at the Windows of the Lodge of the Heralds. ... A royal family is the extended family of a monarch. ...

Links

• Notes On Types of Laws of Succession (http://www.heraldica.org/faqs/atrfaq.htm#p2-5n)