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The principles of air navigation are the same for all aircraft, big or small. Air navigation involves successfully piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the ground. Flying machine redirects here. ...
Small can refer to the following: Look up small in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
The word ground has several meanings: The surface of the Earth Soil, a mixture of sand and organic material present on the surface of the Earth Ground (electricity), in electrical engineering, something that is connected to the Earth or at the voltage defined as zero (in the US, called ground...
Air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several ways:
Aircraft travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position enroute. Aircraft normally cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure. Aircraft are safety-limited by the amount of fuel they can carry; a surface vehicle can usually get lost, run out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no in-flight rescue for most aircraft. And collisions with obstructions are usually fatal. Therefore, constant awareness of position is critical for aircraft pilots.
The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under the visual flight rules (VFR) or the instrument flight rules (IFR). In the latter case, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as beacons, or as directed under radar control by air traffic control. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using dead reckoning combined with visual observations (known as pilotage), with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids. Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ...
Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of aviation regulations under which a pilot may operate an aircraft in weather conditions sufficient to allow the pilot, by visual reference to the environment outside the cockpit, to control the aircrafts attitude, navigate, and maintain safe separation from obstacles such as...
It has been suggested that Air traffic control#Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) be merged into this article or section. ...
For other uses, see Aviator (disambiguation). ...
Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in the basic-T. From top left: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indicator Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircrafts...
This article does not cite any references or sources. ...
For other uses, see Radar (disambiguation). ...
For the Canadian musical group, see Air Traffic Control (band). ...
Dead reckoning (DR) is the process of estimating ones current position based upon a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon measured velocity, time, heading, as well as the effect of currents or wind. ...
Pilotage is the use of fixed visual references on the ground or sea to guide oneself to a destination. ...
Route planning The first step in navigation is deciding where one wishes to go. A private pilot planning a flight under VFR will usually use an aeronautical chart of the area which is published specifically for the use of pilots. This map will depict controlled airspace, radio navigation aids and airfields prominently, as well as hazards to flying such as mountains, tall radio masts, etc. It also includes sufficient ground detail - towns, roads, wooded areas - to aid visual navigation. In the UK, the CAA publishes a series of maps covering the whole of the UK at various scales, updated annually. The information is also updated in the notices to airmen, or NOTAMs. An aeronautical chart is a map designed to assist in navigation of aircraft, much as nautical charts do for watercraft, or a roadmap for drivers. ...
Controlled airspace exists in areas where air traffic control is capable of providing traffic separation. ...
For other uses, see Airport (disambiguation). ...
The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) is the name for the national body governing civil aviation in a number of countries. ...
NOTAM or NoTAM is the quasi-acronym for a Notice To Airmen. NOTAMs are created and transmitted by government agencies under guidelines specified by Annex 15: Aeronautical Information Services of the International Convention on Civil Aviation. ...
The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid controlled airspace that is not permitted for the flight, restricted areas, danger areas and so on. The chosen route is plotted on the map, and the lines drawn are called the track. The aim of all subsequent navigation is to follow the chosen track as accurately as possible. Occasionally, the pilot may elect on one leg to follow a clearly visible feature on the ground such as a railway track, river, highway, or coast. Controlled airspace exists in areas where air traffic control is capable of providing traffic separation. ...
Adjustment of an aircraft's heading to compensate for wind flow perpendicular to the ground track When an aircraft is in flight, it is moving relative to the body of air it is flying in, therefore maintaining an accurate ground track is not as easy as it might appear, unless there is no wind at all — a very rare occurrence. Therefore the pilot must adjust heading to compensate for the wind, in order to follow the ground track. Initially the pilot will calculate headings to fly for each leg of the trip prior to departure, using the forecast wind directions and speeds supplied by the meteorological authorities for the purpose. These figures are generally accurate and updated several times per day, but the unpredictable nature of the weather means that the pilot must be prepared to make further adjustments in flight. A GA pilot will often make use of either the E6B flight computer - a type of slide rule - or a purpose designed electronic navigational computer to calculate initial headings. Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ...
Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ...
The wind triangle graphically represents the relationships among velocity vectors used for air navigation. ...
The front of a metal E6B. An E6B flight computer commonly used by student pilots. ...
A typical 10 inch student slide rule (Pickett N902-T simplex trig). ...
The primary instrument of navigation is the magnetic compass. The needle or card aligns itself to magnetic north, which does not coincide with true north, so the pilot must also allow for this, called the magnetic variation (or declination). The variation that applies locally is also shown on the flight map. Once the pilot has calculated the actual headings required, the next step is to calculate the flight times for each leg. This is necessary to perform accurate dead reckoning. The pilot also needs to take into account the slower initial airspeed during climb to calculate the time to top of climb. It is also helpful to calculate the top of descent, or the point at which the pilot would plan to commence the descent for landing. This article is about the navigational instrument. ...
This is about the geographic meaning of North Pole. ...
True Pizza is a navigational term referring to the direction of the North Pole relative to the navigators position. ...
The magnetic declination (or magnetic variation) at any point on the earth is an angle that must be added or subtracted in converting between two kinds of directional information: the direction of the needle on a magnetic compass located there, and the direction of the earths lines of longitude. ...
Dead reckoning (DR) is the process of estimating ones current position based upon a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon measured velocity, time, heading, as well as the effect of currents or wind. ...
The flight time will depend on both the desired cruising speed of the aircraft, and the wind - a tailwind will shorten flight times, a headwind will increase them. The E6B has scales to help pilots compute these easily. The front of a metal E6B. An E6B flight computer commonly used by student pilots. ...
The point of no return is the point on a flight at which a plane has just enough fuel, plus any mandatory reserve, to return to the airfield from which it departed. Beyond this point that option is closed, and the plane must proceed to some other destination. The point of no return, or the Rubicon, is the point beyond which someone, or some group of people, must continue on their current course of action. ...
Alternatively, with respect to a large region without airfields, e.g. an ocean, it can mean the point before which it is closer to turn around and after which it is closer to continue.
Additional calculations depending on the aircraft and the terrain may include single engine flight characteristics in the event of a loss of one of a twin's engines in flight.
The final stage is to note over which areas the route will go, and to make a note of all of the things to be done - which ATC units to contact, the appropriate frequencies, visual reporting points, and so on. It is also important to note which pressure setting regions will be entered, so that the pilot can ask for the QNH (air pressure) of those regions. Finally, the pilot should have in mind some alternative plans in case the route cannot be flown for some reason - unexpected weather conditions being the most common. At times the pilot may be required to flight plan for an alternate destination and to carry adequate fuel for this. The more work a pilot can do on the ground prior to departure, the easier it will be in the air. QNH is a Q code. ...
IFR planning In many respects this is similar to VFR planning except that the task is generally made simpler by the use of special charts that show IFR routes from beacon to beacon with the lowest safe altitude (LSALT), bearings (in both directions) and distance marked for each route. IFR pilots may fly on other routes but they then have to do all of these calculations themselves with the LSALT calculation being the most difficult. The pilot then needs to look at the weather and minimum specifications for landing at the destination airport and the alternate requirements. The pilot must also comply with all the rules including their legal ability to use a particular instrument approach depending on how recently they last performed one. The lowest safe altitude (LSALT) is a term used in aviation and in particular in air navigation. ...
In flight Once in flight, the pilot must take pains to stick to plan, otherwise getting lost is all too easy. This is especially true if flying over featureless terrain. This means that the pilot must stick to the calculated headings, heights and speeds as accurately as possible. The visual pilot must regularly compare the ground with the map, (pilotage) to ensure that the track is being followed although adjustments are generally calculated and planned. Usually, the pilot will fly for some time as planned to a point where features on the ground are easily recognised. If the wind is different from that expected, the pilot must adjust heading accordingly, but this is not done by guesswork, but by mental calculation - often using the 1 in 60 rule. For example a two degree error at the halfway stage can be corrected by adjusting heading by four degrees the other way to arrive in position at the end of the leg. This is also a point to reassess the estimated time for the leg. A good pilot will become adept at applying a variety of techniques to stay on track. Pilotage is the use of fixed visual references on the ground or sea to guide oneself to a destination. ...
This rule is used in air navigation. ...
While the compass is the primary instrument used to determine one's heading, pilots will usually refer instead to the direction indicator (DI), a gyroscopically driven device which is much more stable than a compass. The compass reading will be used to correct for any drift (precession) of the DI periodically. The compass itself will only show a steady reading when the aircraft has been in straight and level flight long enough to allow it to settle. The heading indicator (or HI) is an instrument used in an aircraft to inform the pilot of his heading. ...
A gyroscope For other uses, see Gyroscope (disambiguation). ...
Precession redirects here. ...
Should the pilot be unable to complete a leg - for example bad weather arises, or the visibility falls below the minima permitted by the pilot's license, the pilot must divert to another route. Since this is an unplanned leg, the pilot must be able to mentally calculate suitable headings to give the desired new track. Using the E6B in flight is usually impractical, so mental techniques to give rough and ready results are used. The wind is usually allowed for by assuming that sine A = A, for angles less than 60° (when expressed in terms of a fraction of 60° - e.g. 30° is 1/2 of 60°, and sine 30° = 0.5), which is adequately accurate. A method for computing this mentally is the clock code. However the pilot must be extra vigilant when flying diversions to maintain awareness of position. The front of a metal E6B. An E6B flight computer commonly used by student pilots. ...
In mathematics, the trigonometric functions are functions of an angle, important when studying triangles and modeling periodic phenomena. ...
The clock code is a method of mentally computing the sine of an angle between zero and sixty degrees. ...
Some diversions can be temporary - for example to skirt around a local storm cloud. In such cases, the pilot can fly away from track at an angle of 60°For a noted period, fly another 60° once clear of the problem for the same period, and be back on track at the end. This works regardless of wind direction, because the effect of a constant wind will cancel out on the two flown legs, but will affect the time estimates for the overall leg by adding a period equal to half of the total flight time for the additional two legs.
Navigation Aids Good pilots use all means available to help navigate. Many GA aircraft are fitted with a variety of radio navigation aids, such as Automatic direction finder (ADF), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) and Global Positioning System (GPS). A Non-directional Beacon, or NDB, is a radio broadcast station in a known location, used as a navigational aid by aircraft pilots. ...
The acronym ADF can refer to a number of different things: Actin-Depolymerizing Factor (protein family) Adaptively Sampled Distance Fields African Development Foundation Airline Dispatcher Federation Alliance Defense Fund Allied Democratic Forces Amiga Disk File Amsterdam Density Functional Application Development Facility (programming language) Ãr nDraÃocht Féin Asian Dub...
D-VOR (Doppler VOR) ground station, co-located with DME. VOR, short for VHF Omni-directional Radio Range, is a type of radio navigation system for aircraft. ...
In Norse Mythology Vor is a goddess of the Aesir. ...
GPS redirects here. ...
Over fifty GPS satellites such as this NAVSTAR have been launched since 1978. ...
ADF uses non-directional beacons (NDBs) on the ground to drive a display which shows the direction of the beacon from the aircraft. The pilot may use this bearing to draw a line on the map to show the bearing from the beacon. By using a second beacon, two lines may be drawn to locate the aircraft at the intersection of the lines. This is called a cross-cut. Alternatively, if the track takes the flight directly overhead a beacon, the pilot can use the ADF instrument to maintain heading relative to the beacon, though "following the needle" is bad practice, especially in the presence of a strong cross wind - the pilot's actual track will spiral in towards the beacon, not what was intended. NDBs also can give erroneous readings because they use very long wavelengths, which are easily bent and reflected by ground features and the atmosphere. NDBs continue to be used as a common form of navigation in some countries with relatively few navigational aids. Radio Tower of NKR Leimen-Ochsenbach, Germany A Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) is a radio broadcast station in a known location, used as an aviation or marine navigational aid. ...
For other uses, see Wavelength (disambiguation). ...
VOR is a more sophisticated system, and is still the primary air navigation system established for aircraft flying under IFR in those countries with many navigational aids. In this system, a beacon emits a specially modulated signal which consists of two sine waves which are out of phase. The phase difference corresponds to the actual bearing relative to true north that the receiver is from the station. The upshot is that the receiver can determine with certainty the exact bearing from the station. Again, a cross-cut is used to pinpoint the location. Many VOR stations also have additional equipment called DME (distance measuring equipment) which will allow a suitable receiver to determine the exact distance from the station. Together with the bearing, this allows an exact position to be determined from a single beacon alone. For convenience, some VOR stations also transmit local weather information which the pilot can listen in to, perhaps generated by an Automated Surface Observing System. D-VOR (Doppler VOR) ground station, co-located with DME. VOR, short for VHF Omni-directional Radio Range, is a type of radio navigation system for aircraft. ...
In trigonometry, an ideal sine wave is a waveform whose graph is identical to the generalized sine function y = Asin[ω(x − α)] + C, where A is the amplitude, ω is the angular frequency (2π/P where P is the wavelength), α is the phase shift, and C...
This article is about a portion of a periodic process. ...
D-VOR/DME ground station DME by itself Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures distance by timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals. ...
The Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) and the older Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) are sensors used to measure and record hourly and significant weather conditions at airports across the United States. ...
Prior to the advent of GPS, Celestial Navigation was also used by trained navigators on military bombers and transport aircraft in the event of all electronic navigational aids being turned off in time of war. Originally navigators used an astrodome and regular sextant but the more streamlined periscopic sextant was used from the 1940's to the 1990's. Over fifty GPS satellites such as this NAVSTAR have been launched since 1978. ...
For the episode of The West Wing, see Celestial Navigation (The West Wing). ...
A sextant is a measuring instrument generally used to measure the angle of elevation of a celestial object above the horizon. ...
Finally, an aircraft may be supervised from the ground using radar. ATC can then feed back information to the pilot to help establish position, or can actually tell the pilot the position of the aircraft, depending on the level of ATC service the pilot is receiving. For other uses, see Radar (disambiguation). ...
For the Canadian musical group, see Air Traffic Control (band). ...
The use of GPS navigation in aircraft is becoming increasingly common. GPS provides very precise aircraft position, altitude, heading and ground speed information. GPS makes navigation precision once reserved to large RNAV-equipped aircraft available to the GA (general aviation) pilot. Recently, more and more airports include GPS instrument approaches. GPS approaches consist of either overlays to existing non-precision approaches or stand-alone GPS non-precision approaches. Area Navigation (RNAV) is a method of air navigation that allows an aircraft to choose any course within a network of navigation beacons, rather than navigating directly to and from the beacons. ...
General aviation (abbr. ...
See also
Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (also called ADS-B) is a system by which airplanes constantly broadcast their current location, type of aircraft, airspeed, flight number, and whether the aircraft is turning, climbing or descending. ...
An aeronautical chart is a map designed to assist in navigation of aircraft, much as nautical charts do for watercraft, or a roadmap for drivers. ...
Air safety is a broad term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through appropriate regulation, as well as through education and training. ...
Raum the Old. ...
The great-circle distance is the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere measured along a path on the surface of the sphere (as opposed to going through the spheres interior). ...
Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in the basic-T. From top left: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indicator Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircrafts...
A Flight Managment System is a little computer onboard almost every aircraft that will guide the aircraft to it designated destination. ...
A Tarom Boeing 737-300 and a United Airlines Boeing 777-200 taxi side by side at London Heathrow Airport. ...
The Localizer station at Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport in Hanover, Germany. ...
An Air traffic obstacle is a tall structure which can endanger air traffic. ...
In Norse Mythology, Sigi is a one of the sons of Odin. ...
Spherical triangle Spherical trigonometry is a part of spherical geometry that deals with polygons (especially triangles) on the sphere and explains how to find relations between the involved angles. ...
External links - Fly Away - Air Navigation tutorials
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