Air safety is a broad term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through appropriate regulation, as well as through education and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. No matter the speed and economy of any mode of transportation, if it is not perceived and demonstrated as safe, it will find few customers and, with few customers, unless it can still be priced to make a profit, the transportation mode will fail and fade from the scene. The dirigibles of the 1920s and 30s provide an example of this principle. Capt. ... A Silk Air Airbus A320-200 in the air. ... USS Akron (ZRS-4) in flight, November 2, 1931 An airship or dirigible is a buoyant lighter-than-air aircraft that can be steered and propelled through the air. ... The 1920s is a decade that is sometimes referred to as the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties, usually applied to America. ... The 1930s (years from 1930–1939) were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression, also known as the World Depression. ...

Balanced against the speed of travel and the convenience of schedule, transportation by air must overcome various phobias of much of the traveling public: fear of heights, enclosed spaces, surrender of control. Human phobias are not a factor with cargo shipments. If the shipment does not arrive safely, the air carrier will find few customers seeking its service. For other uses, see Phobia (disambiguation). ... An Airbus A380 of Emirates Airline An airline provides air transport services for passengers or freight. ...

Air accidents tend to make national, even international, news. In major airliner accidents, hundreds of passengers may be affected. Add to this the number of family members who will be available at the airports at either end of the flight, ready for interviews, providing pictures of anguish on television news and the task before the industry becomes plain. An Airbus A340 airliner operated by Air Jamaica An airliner is a large fixed-wing aircraft with the primary function of transporting paying passengers. ...

Therefore, the entire industry and the government bodies who regulate and support it put a great deal of effort into making air transportation not only appear safe, but demonstrating that it is the safest mode of transportation available.

NASA air safety experiment (CID project)

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1702x1350, 702 KB) NASA photo ID: ECN-28307 Crash test dummys loaded in the Boeing 720 that is to be destroyed in the Controlled Impact Demonstration. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1702x1350, 702 KB) NASA photo ID: ECN-28307 Crash test dummys loaded in the Boeing 720 that is to be destroyed in the Controlled Impact Demonstration. ... Practice approach Pre-impact Post-impact 1 Post-impact 2 The Controlled Impact Demonstration (or jokingly Crash In the Desert) was a joint project between NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to test the impact of a Boeing 720 aircraft using standard fuel with...

Institutions

Certification

In most countries, civil aircraft have to be certified by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) to be allowed to fly. The major aviation authorities worldwide are the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (which provides regulatory advice to the European Union and to a degree supplanted the regulatory bodies of member countries) and the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) which advises the CAAs that are members of the European Civil Aviation Conference). FAA, EASA and JAA collaborate on many issues, especially in order to provide streamlined procedure and avoid conflicting or duplicate requirements. FAA and EASA are, in particular, primarily responsible for the certification of the airliners from the two major manufacturers, Boeing and Airbus. The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) is the name for the national body governing civil aviation in a number of countries. ... Look up aviation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Motto: (Out Of Many, One) (traditional) In God We Trust (1956 to date) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington D.C. Largest city New York City None at federal level (English de facto) Government Federal constitutional republic  - President George Walker Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence from... “FAA” redirects here. ... Agency of the European Union Location: Cologne, Germany Formation: - Signed - Established September 28, 2003 Superseding pillar: European Community Director: Patrick Goudou Website: easa. ... The Joint Aviation Authorities, or JAA, is the predominant regulatory body for aviation in Europe. ... The European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) or Conférence Européenne de lAviation Civile (CEAC) is an international organization with close ties to the United Nations, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the Council of Europe and the institutions of the European Union such as EUROCONTROL and the Joint Aviation... The Boeing Company (NYSE: BA, TYO: 7661) is a major aerospace and defense corporation, originally founded by William Edward Boeing. ... This article is about the airliner manufacturer. ...

Aircraft are certified against standards set out in the code for each CAA. Those codes are very similar and differ primarily in equipment and environmental standards. Regulations on maintenance, repair and operation provide further direction to the owners of the aircraft so that the aircraft continues to meet design standards. Flying machine redirects here. ...

United States

This article does not cite any references or sources. (October 2006) Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the USA to regulate civil aviation. Of particular significance was the Air Commerce Act 1926, which required pilots and aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be properly investigated, and for the establishment of safety rules and navigation aids, under the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... Civil airliner - Air India Boeing 747-400 Civil aviation is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-Military aviation, both private and commercial. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The United States Department of Commerce is a Cabinet department of the United States government concerned with promoting economic growth. ...

Despite this, in 1926 and 1927 there were a total of 24 fatal commercial airline crashes, a further 16 in 1928, and 51 in 1929 (killing 61 people), which remains the worst year on record at an accident rate of about 1 for every 1,000,000 miles flown. Based on the current numbers flying, this would equate to 7,000 fatal incidents per year.

The fatal incident rate has declined steadily ever since, and, since 1997 the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles flown (e.g., 100 people flying a plane for 1000 miles counts as 100,000 person-miles, making it comparable with methods of transportation with different numbers of passengers, such as one person driving a car for 100,000 miles, which is also 100,000 person-miles), making it one of the safest modes of transport. “Car” and “Cars” redirect here. ...

A disproportionate number of all U.S. aircraft crashes occur in Alaska. Between 1990-2006 there were 1441 commuter and air taxi crashes in the U.S. of which 373 (26%) were fatal, resulting in 1063 deaths (142 occupational pilot deaths). Alaska accounted for 513 (36%) of the total U.S. crashes.^[1]

Another aspect of safety is protection from attack (discussed below). The terrorist attacks of 2001 are not counted as accidents. However, even if they were counted as accidents they would have added only about 2 deaths per 2,000,000,000 person-miles. Unfortunately, only 2 months later, American Airlines Flight 587 crashed in Queens, NY, killing 256 people, including 5 on the ground, causing 2001 to have a very high fatality rate. Even so, the rate that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about 4 deaths per 1,000,000,000 person-miles), may be relatively safe compared to some other forms of transport. A sequential look at United Flight 175 crashing into the south tower of the World Trade Center The September 11, 2001 attacks (often referred to as 9/11—pronounced nine eleven or nine one one) consisted of a series of coordinated terrorist[1] suicide attacks upon the United States, predominantly... American Airlines Flight 587 crashed into the Belle Harbor neighborhood of Queens in New York City shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport on November 12, 2001. ... For other uses, see Queens (disambiguation) and Queen. ... New York, New York and NYC redirect here. ...

Safety improvements have resulted from a wide variety of factors, including improved aircraft design, engineering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures. Six F-16 Fighting Falcons with the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team fly in delta formation in front of the Empire State Building. ...

It is often reported that air travel is the safest in terms of deaths per passenger mile. The National Transportation Safety Board (2006) reports 1.3 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by car, and 1.7 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by air.^[2] These are not passenger miles. If an airplane has 100 passengers, then the passenger miles are 100 times higher, making the risk 100 times lower. The number of deaths per passenger mile on commercial airlines between 1995 and 2000 is about 3 deaths per 10 billion passenger miles.^[3] Seal of the National Transportation Safety Board The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is a U.S. government independent organization responsible for investigation of accidents involving aviation, highway, marine, pipelines and railroads in the United States. ...

Navigation aids and instrument flight

One of the first navigation aids to be introduced (in the USA in the late 1920s) was airfield lighting to assist pilots to make landings in poor weather or after dark. The Precision Approach Path Indicator was developed from this in the 1930s, indicating to the pilot the angle of descent to the airfield. This later became adopted internationally through the standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The principles of air navigation are the same for all aircraft, big or small. ... The Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) is a light system positioned beside the runway that consists of two, three, or four boxes of lights that provide a visual indication of an airplanes position on the glidepath for the associated runway. ... The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an agency of the United Nations, codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth. ...

In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight. General James Harold Jimmy Doolittle, Sc. ... Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in the basic-T. From top left: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indicator Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircrafts...

With the spread of radio technology, several experimental radio based navigation aids were developed from the late 1920s onwards. These were most successfully used in conjunction with instruments in the cockpit in the form of Instrument landing systems (ILS), first used by a scheduled flight to make a landing in a snowstorm at Pittsburgh in 1938. A form of ILS was adopted by the ICAO for international use in 1949. Radio navigation is the application of radio frequencies to determining a position on the earth. ... Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in the basic-T. From top left: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indicator Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircrafts... VC-10 (1960s) Airliner Cockpit. ... The Localizer station at Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport in Hanover, Germany. ... A typical view of a winter storm. ... Pittsburgh redirects here. ...

Following the development of radar in World War II, it was deployed as a landing aid for civil aviation in the form of Ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, joined in 1948 by distance measuring equipment (DME), and in the 1950s by airport surveillance radar as an aid to air traffic control. VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) became the predominate means of route navigation during the 1960s superseding the Non-directional beacon (NDB). The ground based VOR stations were often co-located with DME, so that pilots could know both their radials in degrees with respect to north to, and their slant range distance to, that beacon.^[4] For other uses, see Radar (disambiguation). ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... In aviation a ground-controlled approach (GCA), is a type of precision instrument approach, used to guide aircraft to a safe landing in adverse weather conditions. ... The word GCA has more than one meaning: Gothenburg City Airport - a city airport in western Sweden Giant cell arteritis - a form of vasculitis GCA - a data file format Gun Control Act - Gun Control Act of 1968 Golf Course Architecture - Popular Golf magazine This is a disambiguation page—a list... D-VOR/DME ground station DME by itself Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures distance by timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals. ... DME is a TLA referring to one of the following: Dubai Mercantile Exchange, a mercantile exchange market in Dubai, United Arab Emirates Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad, a railroad in the US (AAR reporting marks DME) Digital Motor Electronics, an automotive engine control system. ... the first thing that was invented was the automatic DILDO. Education grew explosively because of a very strong demand for high school and college education. ... Airport Surveillance Radar (KDBA, Dayton Beach, FL). ... For the Canadian musical group, see Air Traffic Control (band). ... D-VOR (Doppler VOR) ground station, co-located with DME. VOR, short for VHF Omni-directional Radio Range, is a type of radio navigation system for aircraft. ... In Norse Mythology Vor is a goddess of the Aesir. ... Radio Tower of NKR Leimen-Ochsenbach, Germany A Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) is a radio broadcast station in a known location, used as an aviation or marine navigational aid. ... A Non-directional Beacon, or NDB, is a radio broadcast station in a known location, used as a navigational aid by aircraft pilots. ...

All of the ground-based navigation aids are rapidly being supplemented by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System (GPS), which make it possible for aircrews to know their position with great precision anywhere in the world. With the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), GPS navigation has become accurate enough for vertical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. However, since the GPS constellation is a single-point of failure that can be switched off by the U.S. military in time of crisis, onboard Inertial Navigation System (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup. For other uses, see Satellite (disambiguation). ... GPS redirects here. ... Aircrew members may include pilots, flight attendants, flight engineers, navigators, Taccos, signallers, observers, (air) gunners, weapons specialists, loadmasters and various electronics system operators depending on the age during which the aircraft operated and the type of operations. ... WAAS System Overview The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an extremely accurate navigation system developed for civil aviation by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), a division of the United States Department of Transportation (DOT). ... The Military of the United States, also known as the United States Armed Forces, is structured into five branches consisting of the: United States Army United States Marine Corps United States Navy United States Air Force United States Coast Guard Reserves United States National Guard United States Army Reserve United... An inertial navigation system measures the position and altitude of a vehicle by measuring the accelerations and rotations applied to the systems inertial frame. ... The acronym INS can refer to: Immigration and Naturalization Service Indian Navy Ship Inelastic neutron scattering Inertial navigation system Insert Key of a keyboard Insurgency, a multi-player mod for Half-Life 2 International Network Services International News Service International Numbering System adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission Irish Naval...

Air safety topics

Lightning

Boeing studies have shown that airliners are struck by lightning on average of twice per year. While the "flash and bang" can be dramatic and startling to the passengers and crew, aircraft are able to withstand normal lightning strikes. Lightning over Oradea in Romania For information on lightning precautions, see Lightning safety. ...

The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not understood until the destruction of a glider in 1999.^[5] It has since been suggested that positive lightning may have caused the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. At that time aircraft were not designed to withstand such strikes, since their existence was unknown at the time standards were set. Lightning over Oradea in Romania For information on lightning precautions, see Lightning safety. ... Gliders or Sailplanes are heavier-than-air aircraft primarily intended for unpowered flight. ... Pan Ams seaplane terminal at Dinner Key in Miami, Florida, was a hub of inter-American travel during the 1930s and 1940s. ... Pan Am Flight 214 was a domestic scheduled passenger flight whose loss dispelled the myth that airliners in flight were impervious to damage from lightning strikes. ...

The effects of normal lightning on traditional metal-covered aircraft are well understood and serious damage from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. However, as more and more aircraft, like the upcoming Boeing 787, whose whole exterior is made of non-conducting composite materials take to the skies, additional design effort and testing must be made before certification authorities will permit these aircraft in commercial service. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a mid-sized, wide-body, twin engine jet airliner currently in production by Boeing Commercial Airplanes and scheduled to enter service in November 2008. ... A cloth of woven carbon fiber filaments, a common element in composite materials Composite materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties and which remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level within the finished structure. ...

Ice and snow

Snowy and icy conditions are frequent contributors to airline accidents. The December 8, 2005 accident where Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slid off the end of the runway in heavy snow conditions is just one of many examples. Just as on a road, ice and snow buildup can make braking and steering difficult or impossible if severe enough. Snow is a type of precipitation in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes that fall from clouds. ... is the 342nd day of the year (343rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 (WN1248, SWA1248) was a scheduled passenger flight from Baltimore-Washington International Airport serving Baltimore, Maryland to Midway Airport in southwest Chicago, Illinois. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Mountain road with hairpin turns in the French Alps For other uses, see Road (disambiguation). ... This article is about water ice. ...

The icing of wings is another common problem that is well known and measures have been developed to combat it. The greatest concern regarding icing is that even a small amount of ice or coarse frost can greatly decrease the ability of a wing to develop lift. This could prevent an otherwise capable aircraft from safely taking off. If ice builds up during flight the result can be catastrophic as evidenced by the crash of American Eagle Flight 4184 (an ATR 72 aircraft) near Roselawn, Indiana on October 31, 1994, killing 68, or Air Florida Flight 90.^[6] The effect of atmospheric icing on a tree. ... Frost on black pipes Frost is a solid deposition of water vapor from saturated air. ... The lift force, lifting force or simply lift is a mechanical force generated by solid objects as they move through a fluid. ... American Eagle Airlines is an airline based in Fort Worth, Texas. ... American Eagle Flight 4184 was a regional airline flight that crashed after flying into known icing conditions on October 31, 1994. ... The ATR 72 is a twin-turboprop short-haul regional airliner built in France by the ATR company (Avions de Transport gional). ... Roselawn is a census-designated place located in Newton County, Indiana. ... is the 304th day of the year (305th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1994 (MCMXCIV) The year 1994 was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by the United Nations. ... U.S. National Transportation Safety Board diagram of flight path for Air Florida flight 90 which crashed on takeoff at Washington, D.C. on January 13, 1982, killing 78 persons. ...

Airlines and airports expend considerable effort to ensure that aircraft are properly de-iced before takeoff whenever the weather threatens to create icing conditions. Modern airliners are designed to prevent ice buildup on wings, engines, and tails (empennage) by either routing heated air from jet engines through the leading edges of the wing, tail, and inlets, or on slower aircraft, by use of inflatable rubber "boots" that expand and break off any accumulated ice. An American Airlines MD-80 aircraft being de-iced at Syracuse Hancock International Airport De-icing is the process of removing ice from a surface. ... A Ryanair Boeing 737 takes off from Bristol International Airport, England Takeoff is the phase of flight where an aircraft transitions from moving along the ground (taxiing) to flying in the air (see flight), usually on a runway. ... In aviation, icing conditions are those atmospheric conditions that can lead to the formation of water ice on the surfaces of the aircraft, or as carburetor icing within the engine. ... For other uses, see Wing (disambiguation). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Empennage is an aviation term used to describe the tail portion of an aircraft. ... A Pratt and Whitney turbofan engine for the F-15 Eagle is tested at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia, USA. The tunnel behind the engine muffles noise and allows exhaust to escape. ... The Leading Edge is a Speculative fiction magazine founded in 1981, located in Provo, Utah, and which has published stories by Dave Wolverton and Orson Scott Card, among others. ... A deicing boot is a device installed on aircraft surfaces to permit a mechanical deicing in flight. ...

Finally, airline dispatch offices keep close watch on weather along the routes of their flights, helping the pilots avoid the worst of possible inflight icing conditions. Pilots can also be equipped with an ice detector in order to leave icy areas they have inadvertently flown into. The Flight Dispatcher (also Flight Operations Officer) in airline operations has great authority over flights. ... For other uses, see Aviator (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Engine failure

Although aircraft are now designed to fly even after the failure of one or more aircraft engines, the failure of the second engine on one side for example is obviously serious. Losing all engine power is even more serious, as illustrated by the 1970 Dominicana DC-9 air disaster, when fuel contamination caused the failure of both engines. To have an emergency landing site is then very important. A compressor stall is either of two failure modes of an axial flow jet engine caused by a stall of the vanes of the compressor rotor. ... For other uses, see Engine (disambiguation). ... The Dominicana de Aviacion Santo Domingo DC-9 air disaster occurred on February 15, 1970. ... For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ... An emergency landing is a non-planned landing made by an aircraft in response to a crisis. ...

In the 1983 Gimli Glider incident, an Air Canada flight suffered fuel exhaustion during cruise flight, forcing the pilot to glide the plane to an emergency deadstick landing. The automatic deployment of the ram air turbine maintained the necessary hydraulic pressure to the flight controls, so that the pilot was able to land with only a minimal amount of damage to the plane, and minor (evacuation) injuries to a few passengers. Gimli Glider is a nickname given to an aircraft involved in an infamous incident in aviation history. ... Air Canada is Canadas largest airline and flag carrier. ... Boeing 747 in cruise at roughly 35000 feet, showing contrails from the four engines. ... A deadstick landing or forced landing occurs when an aircraft loses all of its propulsive power and is forced to land. ... Ram air turbine on F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bomber A ram air turbine (RAT) is a small propeller and connected electrical generator used as an emergency power source for aircraft. ... Table of Hydraulics and Hydrostatics, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ...

The ultimate form of engine failure, physical separation, occurred in 1979 when a complete engine detached from American Airlines Flight 191, causing damage to the aircraft that contributed significantly to the loss of control shortly afterwards. A turbine engine failure refers to an incident wherein a turbine engine in an aircraft unexpectedly stops producing power, absent circumstances such as fuel exhaustion. ... American Airlines Flight 191, a McDonnell-Douglas DC-10-10 aircraft, crashed on May 25, 1979, at around 15:04 CDT, after taking off from OHare International Airport in Chicago, Illinois. ...

Metal fatigue

Metal fatigue has occasionally caused failure either of the engine (for example in the January 8, 1989 Kegworth air disaster), or of the aircraft body, for example the De Havilland Comets in 1953 and 1954 and Aloha Airlines Flight 243 in 1988. Now that the subject is better understood, rigorous inspection and nondestructive testing procedures are in place to attempt to identify potential problems. In materials science, fatigue is the progressive, localised, and permanent structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum values less than (often much less than) the static yield strength of the material. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar). ... The Kegworth Air Disaster occurred on January 8, 1989 when British Midland Airlines Flight 92, a Boeing 737-400, crashed onto the embankment of the M1 motorway near Kegworth, Leicestershire, UK. The aircraft was preparing to land at the East Midlands Airport. ... This article is about the de Havilland Comet jet airliner. ... Aloha Airlines (IATA: AQ, ICAO: AAH, and Callsign: Aloha) is an airline headquartered in Honolulu, Hawaii USA. It operates extensive scheduled services within the Hawaiian Islands, and between Hawaii and the West Coast of the United States. ... Aloha Airlines Flight 243 was a scheduled Aloha Airlines Boeing 737-200 flight between Hilo and Honolulu in Hawaii. ... // Nondestructive testing (also called NDT, nondestructive evaluation, NDE, and nondestructive inspection, NDI) is testing that does not destroy the test object. ...

Delamination

Composite materials consist of layers of fibers embedded in a resin matrix. In some cases, especially when subjected to cyclic stress, the fibers may tear off the matrix, the layers of the material then separate from each other - a process called delamination, and form a mica-like structure which then falls apart. As the failure develops inside the material, nothing is shown on the surface; instrument methods (often ultrasound-based) have to be used. A cloth of woven carbon fiber filaments, a common element in composite materials Composite materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties and which remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level within the finished structure. ... Fiber or fibre[1] is a class o f materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Cyclic stress in engineering refers is an internal distribution of forces (a stress) that changes over time in a repetitive fashion. ... Delamination is a mode of failure of laminated composite materials. ... Rock with mica Mica sheet Mica flakes The mica group of sheet silicate minerals includes several closely related materials having highly perfect basal cleavage. ... For other uses, see Ultrasound (disambiguation). ...

Numerous modern aircraft have developed delamination problems, but most were discovered before they caused a catastrophic failure. Delamination risk is as old as composite material. Even in the 1940s, several Yakovlev Yak-9s experienced delamination of plywood in their construction. Yak-9 Yak-9D The Yakovlev Yak-9 was a single-engine fighter aircraft used by the Soviet Union in World War II. Like the Yak-3, it was a development of the earlier Yak-1. ... Toy constructed from plywood. ...

Stalling

Stalling an aircraft (increasing the angle of attack to a point at which the wings fail to produce enough lift) is a potential danger, but is normally recoverable. Certain devices have been developed to warn the pilot as stall approaches. These include stall warning horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft), stick shakers and voice warnings. Two well known stall-related airline accidents, were British European Airways Flight 548 in 1972, and the United Airlines Flight 553 crash, while on approach to Chicago Midway International Airport, also in 1972. In aerodynamics, a stall is a condition in which an excessive angle of attack causes loss of lift due to disruption of airflow. ... In this diagram, the black arrow represents the direction of the wind. ... The lift force, lifting force or simply lift is a mechanical force generated by solid objects as they move through a fluid. ... A stick shaker is a mechanical device connected to the controls of an airliner (also other types of aircraft such as bizjets) in order to warn the pilots that they are close to stalling the aircraft. ... For other uses of BEA see Bea British European Airways, or BEA, was formed in 1946 by an Act of Parliament. ... On June 18, 1972, British European Airways Flight 548 (callsign BEALINE 548), a Hawker-Siddeley Trident 1C operated by British European Airways (BEA), crashed two minutes after takeoff from Heathrow Airport, killing all 118 passengers and crew on board. ... United Airlines, also known as United Air Lines, Inc. ... United Airlines Flight 553, registration N9031U, City of Lincoln, was a Boeing 737-222 en route from Washington National Airport to Omaha, Nebraska via Chicago Midway International Airport on December 8, 1972. ... The Greater-Chicago Area featuring Chicago-Midway and OHare International Airports Chicago Midway International Airport (IATA: MDW, ICAO: KMDW, FAA LID: MDW), also known simply as Midway Airport, is an airport in Chicago, Illinois, United States, located on the citys southwest side, eight miles from Chicagos Loop. ...

Fire

Safety regulations control aircraft materials and the requirements for automated fire safety systems. Usually these requirements take the form of required tests. The tests measure flammability and the toxicity of smoke. When the tests fail, they fail on a prototype in an engineering laboratory, rather than in an aircraft. A symbol for inflammable chemicals Inflammability is the ease with which a substance will ignite, causing fire or combustion. ... // Toxic and Intoxicated redirect here – toxic has other uses, which can be found at Toxicity (disambiguation); for the state of being intoxicated by alcohol see Drunkenness. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Fire on board the aircraft, and more especially the toxic smoke generated, have been the cause of several incidents. An electrical fire on Air Canada Flight 797 in 1983 caused the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in the introduction of floor level lighting to assist people to evacuate a smoke-filled aircraft. Two years later a fire on the runway caused the loss of 53 lives, 48 from the effects of smoke, in the 1985 British Airtours Flight 28M. This incident raised serious concerns over the standard aircraft emergency evacuation time of ninety seconds, and calls for the introduction of smoke hoods or misting systems although both were rejected. It did result in the introduction of revised overwing emergency exit doors on certain new aircraft, and a small increase in the spacing between seats next to the emergency exit. Air Canada Flight 797 was a scheduled trans-border flight that flew on a Houston, Texas-Dallas/Fort Worth-Toronto, Ontario route. ... // British Airtours was a UK charter airline based at London Gatwick. ... On August 22, 1985, Flight 28M, a Boeing 737-236 flying the colours of British Airtours, took off from Manchester International Airport in Manchester in England, on an international passenger flight to Kerkira Airport on the Greek island of Kerkira. ... A Smoke Hood is a protective device similar in concept to a gas mask. ... Overwing exits are found on passenger aircraft to provide a means of passenger evacuation onto the wing, where they either continue off the trailing edge by sliding down the extended flaps or by using an evacuation slide that deploys when the exit is opened. ... Emergency Exit, by Manlio Santanelli, is a play written originally in Italian. ...

The cargo holds of most airliners are equipped with "fire bottles" (essentially remote-controlled fire extinguishers) to combat a fire that might occur in with the baggage and freight below the passenger cabin. This was due to a terrible accident in 1996. In May of that year ValuJet Airlines Flight 592 crashed into the Florida Everglades a few minutes after takeoff after a fire broke out in the forward cargo hold. All 110 aboard were killed. Fire extinguisher A fire extinguisher is a device used to put out a fire, often in an emergency situation. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... ValuJet Flight 592 was a flight that crashed on May 11, 1996 en route from Miami International Airport in Miami, Florida to Hartsfield International Airport (now known as Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport) in Atlanta, Georgia. ... Official language(s) English Capital Tallahassee Largest city Jacksonville Largest metro area Miami metropolitan area Area  Ranked 22nd  - Total 65,795[1] sq mi (170,304[1] km²)  - Width 361 miles (582 km)  - Length 447 miles (721 km)  - % water 17. ... Map of the Everglades ecoregion as delineated by the WWF. Satellite image from NASA. The yellow line encloses two ecoregions, the Everglades and the South Florida rocklands. The South Florida rocklands ecoregion includes the Florida Keys and offshore islands and two patches within the Everglades. ...

The investigation determined that improperly packaged chemical oxygen generators (used for the drop-down oxygen masks in the aircraft cabin) had been loaded into the cargo hold. Oxygen generators produce oxygen through a chemical reaction that also generates hundreds of degrees of heat. When installed for use in the ceiling above the passenger seats they are surrounded by heat-resistant shielding and present no fire hazard. On this flight they had been put loosely into a cardboard box for shipment from a maintenance facility. A chemical oxygen generator is a device that releases oxygen created by a chemical reaction. ... Breathing 100% oxygen from a tight fitting pressure demand oxygen mask An oxygen mask provides a method to transfer breathing oxygen gas from a storage tank to the lungs. ... A chemical oxygen generator is a device that releases oxygen created by a chemical reaction. ... General Name, symbol, number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, period, block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ...

It is likely that one or more of the generators ignited, during or immediately after takeoff, producing an oxygen-rich environment. The cardboard box containing the generators would have quickly caught fire from the heat of the ignited generator. The fire spread to an aircraft tire that was also carried in the hold. Ordinarily the fire would have smothered itself, because of the airtight design of that cargo compartment. But the oxygen generators kept feeding oxygen to the fire, defeating the smothering design of the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 cargo hold. The fire rapidly burned through the passenger cabin floor, incapacitating all aboard with smoke and poisonous gases very quickly. The pilots, although having smoke masks and separate oxygen supplies, had no hope of maintaining control as control cables and electrical wiring burned through. The McDonnell Douglas DC-9 (initially known as the Douglas DC-9) is a twin-engine, single-aisle jet airliner. ...

The maintenance facility (SabreTech) was subjected to large fines and ValuJet, due to this accident and other irregularities, was grounded. The airline reemerged as a smaller airline and eventually merged with AirTran Airways, a smaller carrier. Adopting the acquired airline's name, the airline has since provided safe service. For the airline industry, rules for the shipment of oxygen generators was severely restricted and cargo holds on larger airliners were required to have "fire bottles" installed. AirTran Airways is a low-cost airline that is a Delaware corporation with headquarters in Orlando, Florida, USA and is a subsidiary of AirTran Holdings. ...

At one time fire fighting foam paths were laid down before an emergency landing, but the practice was considered only marginally effective, and concerns about the depletion of fire fighting capability due to pre-foaming led the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation in 1987. A repair locker hose team aboard USS John F. Kennedy (CV 67) combats a controlled fire on the mobile aircraft firefighting training device May 2, 2006. ... A foam path is the aviation safety practice of spreading a layer of fire suppression foam on an airport runway prior to an emergency landing. ...

Bird strike

Bird strike is an aviation term for a collision between a bird and an aircraft. It is a common threat to aircraft safety and has caused a number of fatal accidents. In 1988 an Ethiopian Airlines Boeing 737 sucked pigeons into both engines during take-off and then crashed in an attempt to return to the Bahir Dar airport; of the 104 people aboard, 35 died and 21 were injured. In another incident in 1995, a Dassault Falcon 20 crashed at a Paris airport during an emergency landing attempt after sucking lapwings into an engine, which caused an engine failure and a fire in the airplane fuselage; all 10 people on board were killed.^[7] F-16 canopy after a bird strike A bird strike (sometimes birdstrike, bird hit, or BASH (bird aircraft strike hazard)) in aviation, is a collision between an airborne animal (most often a bird, but also sometimes another species) and a man made vehicle, especially aircraft. ... Ethiopian Airlines is an airline based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ... The Boeing 737 is an American short to medium range, single aisle, narrow body jet airliner. ... Dove and Pigeon redirect here. ... Bahir Dar is a city in north western Ethiopia and the capital of the Amhara Administrative Region (kilil). ... The Falcon is a family of business jets manufactured by Dassault Aviation. ... This article is about the capital of France. ... Genera Erthrogonys Vanellus Lapwings are medium-sized wading birds belonging to the subfamily Vanellinae of the family Charadriidae, which also includes the plovers and dotterels. ... The fuselage can be short, and seemingly unaerodynamic, as in this Christen Eagle 2 The fuselage (from the French fuselé spindle-shaped) is an aircrafts main body section that holds crew and passengers or cargo. ...

Modern jet engines have the capability of surviving an ingestion of a bird. Small fast planes, such as military jet fighters, are at higher risk than big heavy multi-engine ones. This is due to the fact that the fan of a high-bypass turbofan engine, typical on transport aircraft, acts as a centrifugal separator to force ingested materials (birds, ice, etc.) to the outside of the fan's disc. As a result, such materials go through the relatively unobstructed bypass duct, rather than through the core of the engine, which contains the smaller and more delicate compressor blades. Military aircraft designed for high-speed flight typically have pure turbojet, or low-bypass turbofan engines, increasing the risk that ingested materials will get into the core of the engine to cause damage. An A-10 Thunderbolt II, F-86 Sabre, P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang fly in formation during an air show at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. ... Schematic diagram of high-bypass turbofan engine CFM56-3 turbofan, lower half, side view. ... Typical bypass duct, in a high bypass ratio turbofan A bypass duct is an annular passage that allows some of a turbofans airflow to bypass the engine core, or gas generator. ... Military aircraft are airplanes used in warfare. ... Turbojets are the simplest and oldest kind of general purpose jet engines. ...

The highest risk of the bird strike is during the takeoff and landing, in low altitudes, which is in the vicinity of the airports. Some airports use active countermeasures, ranging from a person with a shotgun through recorded sounds of predators to employing falconers. Poisonous grass can be planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to insects that attract insectivorous birds. Passive countermeasures involve sensible land-use management, avoiding conditions attracting flocks of birds to the area (eg. landfills). Another tactic found effective is to let the grass at the airfield grow taller (approximately 12 inches (30 centimetres)) as some species of birds won't land if they cannot see one another. MyTravel Airways Airbus A320 landing Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying animal or aircraft returns to the ground. ... Altitude is the elevation of an object from a known level or datum. ... For other uses, see Shotgun (disambiguation). ... Flying a Saker Falcon Falconry or hawking is an art or sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey) to hunt or pursue game for humans. ... Any organism with a diet that consists chiefly of insects and similar small creatures is an insectivore. ... Look up landfill in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... An inch (plural: inches; symbol or abbreviation: in or, sometimes, ″ - a double prime) is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... A centimetre (American spelling centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of length that is equal to one hundredth of a metre, the current SI base unit of length. ...

Ground damage

Aircraft are occasionally damaged by ground equipment at the airport. In the act of servicing the aircraft between flights a great deal of ground equipment must operate in close proximity to the fuselage and wings. Occasionally the aircraft gets bumped or worse. Ground Support Equipment Ground Support Equipment is found on an airport, usually on the ramp (servicing area by terminal). ...

Damage may be in the form of simple scratches in the paint or small dents in the skin. However, because aircraft structures (including the outer skin) play such a critical role in the safe operation of a flight, all damage is inspected, measured and possibly tested to ensure that any damage is within safe tolerances. A dent that may look no worse than common "parking lot damage" to an automobile can be serious enough to ground an airplane until a repair can be made.

An example of the seriousness of this problem was the December 26, 2005 depressurization incident on Alaska Airlines flight 536. During ground services a baggage handler hit the side of the aircraft with a tug towing a train of baggage carts. This damaged the metal skin of the aircraft. This damage was not reported and the plane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet (7,925 metres) the damaged section of the skin gave way due to the growing difference in pressure between the inside of the aircraft and the outside air. The cabin depressurized with a bang, frightening all aboard and necessitating a rapid descent back to denser (breathable) air and an emergency landing. Post landing examination of the fuselage revealed a 12 in × 6 in (30 cm × 15 cm) hole between the middle and forward cargo doors on the right side of the airplane.^[8] is the 360th day of the year (361st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Alaska Airlines, (NYSE: ALK) is an airline based in Seattle, Washington, United States. ... In the airline industry, a baggage handler is a person who loads and unloads baggage (suitcases or luggage), and other cargo (airfreight, mail, counter-to-counter packages) for transport via aircraft. ... Small Baggage cart Cart mule Baggage carts or Trolleys are small vehicles pushed by travellers (human-powered) to carry individual luggage, mostly suitcases. ... A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, ′ – a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... This article is about the unit of length. ... Cabin pressurization is the active pumping of air into the cabin of an aircraft to increase the air pressure within the cabin. ...

The three pieces of ground equipment that most frequently damage aircraft are the passenger boarding bridge, catering trucks, and cargo "beltloaders." However, any other equipment found on an airport ramp can damage an aircraft through careless use, high winds, mechanical failure, and so on. Ground Support Equipment Ground Support Equipment is found on an airport, usually on the ramp (servicing area by terminal). ... Ground Support Equipment Ground Support Equipment is found on an airport, usually on the ramp (servicing area by terminal). ... The airport ramp or apron is part of an airport. ...

The generic industry colloquial term for this damage is "ramp rash", or "hangar rash". Look up Colloquialism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hangars can be used to hold airplanes, airships and helicopters. ...

Volcanic ash

Plumes of volcanic ash near active volcanoes present a risk especially for night flights. The ash is hard and abrasive and can quickly cause significant wear on the propellers and turbocompressor blades, and scratch the cabin windows, impairing visibility. It contaminates fuel and water systems, can jam gears, and can cause a flameout of the engines. Its particles have low melting point, so they melt in the combustion chamber and the ceramic mass then sticks on the turbine blades, fuel nozzles, and the combustors, which can lead to a total engine failure. It can get inside the cabin and contaminate everything there, and can damage the airplane electronics.^[9] Ash plume from Mt Cleveland, a stratovolcano Diamond Head, a well-known backdrop to Waikiki in Hawaii, is an ash cone that solidified into tuff Volcanic ash consists of very fine rock and mineral particles less than 2 mm in diameter that are ejected from a volcanic vent. ... Cleveland Volcano in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska photographed from the International Space Station For other uses, see Volcano (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Propeller (disambiguation). ... A Pratt and Whitney turbofan engine for the F-15 Eagle is tested at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia, USA. The tunnel behind the engine muffles noise and allows exhaust to escape. ... A Pratt and Whitney turbofan engine for the F-15 Eagle is tested at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia, USA. The tunnel behind the engine muffles noise and allows exhaust to escape. ... The melting point of a crystalline solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to liquid. ... A combustion chamber is part of an engine in which fuel is burned. ... Fixed Partial Denture, or Bridge The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός (keramikos). ... A ring of can type combustors circles the mid section of this gas turbine. ...

There are many instances of damage to jet aircraft from ash encounters. In one of them in 1982, British Airways Flight 009 flew through an ash cloud, lost all four engines, and descended from 36,000 ft (11,000 m) to only 12,000 ft (3,700 m) before the flight crew managed to restart the engines. British Airways Flight 009, sometimes referred to as the Jakarta incident, was a flight from London Heathrow to Auckland, with stops in Bombay, Madras, Kuala Lumpur, Perth and Melbourne. ...

With the growing density of air traffic, encounters like this are becoming more common. In 1991 the aviation industry decided to set up Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs), one for each of 9 regions of the world, acting as liaisons between meteorologists, volcanologists, and the aviation industry.^[10] // Meteorology (from Greek: μετέωρον, meteoron, high in the sky; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting. ... Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological phenomena. ...

Human factors

See also aviation medicine Aviation medicine is a branch of medicine that applies medical knowledge to the human factors in aviation. ...

NASA air safety experiment. The airplane is a Boeing 720 testing a new form of jet fuel.

Human factors including pilot error are another potential danger, and currently the most common factor of aviation crashes. Much progress in applying human factors to improving aviation safety was made around the time of World War II by people such as Paul Fitts and Alphonse Chapanis. However, there has been progress in safety throughout the history of aviation, such as the development of the pilot's checklist in 1937.^[11] Pilot error and improper communication are often factors in the collision of aircraft. This can take place in the air (1978 Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 182) (TCAS) or on the ground (1977 Tenerife disaster) (RAAS). The ability of the flight crew to maintain situational awareness is a critical human factor in air safety. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1800x1396, 806 KB) In this photograph the Boeing 720 is seen during the moments of initial impact for NASAs Controlled Impact Demonstration. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1800x1396, 806 KB) In this photograph the Boeing 720 is seen during the moments of initial impact for NASAs Controlled Impact Demonstration. ... Human factors is an umbrella term for several areas of research that include human performance, technology, design, and human-computer interaction. ... Pilot error is a term used to describe the cause of a crash of an airworthy aircraft where the pilot is considered to be principally or partially responsible. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Paul M. Fitts (1912 – 1965) was a psychologist at Ohio State University (later at the University of Michigan). ... Alphonse Chapanis was one of the founders of ergonomics or human factors, the science of making design account for human characteristics. ... 1. ... For other uses, see Collision (disambiguation). ... PSA logo from the 1980s Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) (IATA: PS, ICAO: PSA, and Callsign: PSA) was an airline headquartered in San Diego, California. ... Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) Flight 182, registration N533PS, was a Boeing 727-214 commercial airliner that collided over San Diego, California with a private Cessna 172 on September 25, 1978. ... TCAS and IVSI Indicator The Traffic Collision Avoidance System (or TCAS) is a computer system installed on board many large aircraft, designed to prevent mid-air collisions. ... The Tenerife collision took place on March 27, 1977, at 17:06:56 local time (also GMT), when two Boeing 747 airliners collided at Los Rodeos (TCI) on the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, killing 583 people. ... The term Raas has different meanings: RAAS or renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system is a hormone system that helps regulate long-term blood pressure and blood volume in the body. ... Situation awareness or situational awareness [1] (SA) is the mental representation and understanding of objects, events, people, system states, interactions, environmental conditions, and other situation-specific factors affecting human performance in complex and dynamic tasks. ...

Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the flight instruments resulted in the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 40 in 1972 (CFIT), and error during take-off and landing can have catastrophic consequences, for example cause the crash of Prinair Flight 191 on landing, which also in 1972. Eastern Air Lines was a major United States airline that existed from the late 1920s until 1991. ... Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 was a Lockheed L-1011 jet that crashed into the Florida Everglades on the night of December 29, 1972, causing 101 fatalities (75 initial crash survivors, 2 died shortly afterward). ... A controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) describes an unintentional crash by an airworthy aircraft into the ground (usually a Antarctica on November 28, 1979. ... Prinair was Puerto Ricos domestic and international airline for 3 decades. ... Prinair Flight 191 was a Prinair (Puerto Rico International Airlines) flight from Luis Munoz Marin International Airport in San Juan, to Mercedita Airport in Ponce. ...

Rarely, flight crew members are arrested or subject to disciplinary action for being intoxicated on the job. In 1990, three Northwest Airlines crew members were sentenced to jail for flying from Fargo, North Dakota to Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport while drunk. In 2001, Northwest fired a pilot who failed a breathalyzer test after flying from San Antonio, Texas to Minneapolis-Saint Paul. In July 2002, two America West Airlines pilots were arrested just before they were scheduled to fly from Miami, Florida to Phoenix, Arizona because they had been drinking alcohol. The pilots have been fired from America West and the FAA revoked their pilot's licenses. As of 2005 they await trial in a Florida court.^[12] The incident created a public relations problem and America West has become the object of many jokes about drunk pilots. While these drunk-flying incidents did not result in crashes, they underscore the role that poor human choices can play in air accidents. The Drunkenness of Noah by Giovanni Bellini Drunkenness, is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of alcohol to a degree that mental and physical facilities are noticeably impaired. ... Northwest Airlines (NYSE: NWA), occasionally known as NWA, is an American airline headquartered in Eagan, Minnesota, near Minneapolis-St. ... “Fargo” redirects here. ... Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport (IATA: MSP, ICAO: KMSP) is the largest and busiest airport in the five-state upper Midwestern region of Minnesota, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Wisconsin. ... A breathalyzer (or breathalyser) is a device for estimating blood alcohol content (BAC) from a breath sample. ... “San Antonio” redirects here. ... America West Airlines (IATA: HP, ICAO: AWE, and Callsign: Cactus), operating as US Airways, is one of the United States ten major airlines. ... Miami redirects here. ... Nickname: Location in Maricopa County and the state of Arizona Coordinates: , Country State Counties Maricopa Incorporated February 25, 1881 Government  - Type Council-Manager  - Mayor Phil Gordon (D) Area  - City  515. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Human factors incidents are not limited to errors by the pilots. The failure to close a cargo door properly on Turkish Airlines Flight 981 in 1974 resulted in the loss of the aircraft - however the design of the cargo door latch was also a major factor in the incident. In the case of Japan Airlines Flight 123, improper maintenance resulted in the loss of the vertical stabilizer. Turkish Airlines (Turkish Türk Hava Yolları) (THY) is the national airline of Turkey based in Istanbul. ... Turkish Airlines Flight 981, registration TC-JAV, was a McDonnell Douglas DC-10 which crashed just outside of Senlis, France on March 3, 1974. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Japan Airlines Flight 123 was a Japan Airlines domestic flight from Tokyo International Airport to Osaka International Airport. ... The vertical stabilizer or fin of an aircraft is found on its tail, generally pointing straight upward. ...

Controlled flight into terrain

See Also CFIT A controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) describes an unintentional crash by an airworthy aircraft into the ground (usually a Antarctica on November 28, 1979. ...

Controlled flight into terrain is a class of accident in which an undamaged aircraft is flown, under control, into terrain. CFIT accidents typically are a result of pilot error or of navigational system error. Some pilots, convinced that advanced electronic navigation systems such as GPS and inertial guidance systems (inertial navigation system or INS) coupled with flight management system computers , or over-relianced on them, are partially responsible for these accidents, have called CFIT accidents "computerized flight into terrain". Failure to protect Instrument Landing System critical areas can also cause controlled flight into terrain. Crew awareness and monitoring of navigational systems can prevent or eliminate CFIT accidents. Crew Resource Management is a modern method now widely used to improve the human factors of air safety. The Aviation Safety Reporting System, or ASRS is another. An inertial guidance system consists of an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) combined with a set of guidance algorithms and control mechanisms, allowing the path of a vehicle to be controlled according to the position determined by the inertial navigation system. ... A Flight Managment System is a little computer onboard almost every aircraft that will guide the aircraft to it designated destination. ... A critical area refers to a designated area of an airport that all aircraft must remain clear of when another aircraft is inbound on an instrument approach. ... Crew (or Cockpit) Resource Management (CRM) training originated from a NASA workshop in 1979 that focused on improving air safety. ... The Aviation Safety Reporting System, or ASRS, is a voluntary system that allows pilots and other airplane crew members to confidentially report near misses and close calls in the interest of improving air safety. ...

Other technical aids can be used to help pilots maintain situational awareness. A ground proximity warning system is an on-board system that will alert a pilot if the aircraft is about to fly into the ground. Also, air traffic controllers constantly monitor flights from the ground and at airports. Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground. ... Controllers survey the field at Misawa Air Base, Japan. ...

Terrorism

See Also Terrorism Terrorist redirects here. ...

Terrorism can also be considered a human factor. Crews are normally trained to handle hijack situations. Prior to the September 11, 2001 attacks, hijackings involved hostage negotiations. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, stricter airport security measures are in place to prevent terrorism using a Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System, Air Marshals, and precautionary policies. In addition, counter-terrorist organizations monitor potential terrorist activity. Hijackers inside flightdeck of TWA Flight 847 Aircraft hijacking (also known as skyjacking and aircraft piracy) is the take-over of an aircraft, by a person or group, usually armed. ... A sequential look at United Flight 175 crashing into the south tower of the World Trade Center The September 11, 2001 attacks (often referred to as 9/11—pronounced nine eleven or nine one one) consisted of a series of coordinated terrorist[1] suicide attacks upon the United States, predominantly... Baggage is scanned using X-ray machines, passengers walk through metal detectors Baggage screening monitoring at Bangkok Suvarnabhumi Airport Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting airports and by extension aircraft from crime and terrorism. ... The Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (often abbreviated CAPPS) is a counter-terrorism system in place in the United States air travel industry. ... An air marshals sleeve/shoulder insignia Air Marshal (Air Mshl or AM) is a rank in the Royal Air Force. ... Counter-terrorism refers to the practices, tactics, and strategies that governments, militaries, and other groups adopt in order to fight terrorism. ...

Although most air crews are screened for psychological fitness, some may take suicidal actions. In the case of EgyptAir Flight 990, it appears that the first officer (co-pilot) deliberately dove his aircraft into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain was away from his station, in 1999 off Nantucket, Massachusetts. Motivations are unclear, but recorded inputs from the black boxes showed no mechanical problem, no other aircraft in the area, and was corroborated by the cockpit voice recorder. EgyptAir Airlines Company, operating as EgyptAir (Arabic: مصر للطيران, Misr Lel-Tayaran) is the Cairo-based national airline of Egypt. ... EgyptAir Flight 990 (MSR990) was a regularly-scheduled Los Angeles-New York-Cairo flight. ... In commercial aviation, the first officer is the second pilot of an aircraft. ... Location in Massachusetts Coordinates: , Country United States State Massachusetts County Nantucket County Settled 1641 Incorporated 1671 Government  - Type Open town meeting Area  - Town  105. ... The term Black Box is a placeholder name used casually, often by journalists, to refer to a collection of several different recording devices used in transportation: the flight data recorder, flight recorder and cockpit voice recorder in aircraft, the event recorder in railway diesel locomotives, the Event Data Recorder in... Cockpit Voice Recorder (Exhibit in Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany). ...

The use of certain electronic equipment is partially or entirely prohibited as it may interfere with aircraft operation, such as causing compass deviations. Use of personal electronic devices and calculators may be prohibited when an aircraft is below 10,000', taking off, or landing. The American Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prohibits the use of a cell phone on most flights, because in-flight usage creates problems with ground-based cells. There is also concern about possible interference with aircraft navigation systems, although that has never been proven to be a non-serious risk on airliners. A few flights now allow use of cell phones, where the aircraft have been specially wired and certified to meet both FAA and FCC regulations. This article is about the navigational instrument. ... For other uses, see Calculator (disambiguation). ... FCC redirects here. ... Cell Phone redirects here. ...

Airport design

Airport design and location can have a big impact on air safety, especially since some airports such as Chicago Midway International Airport were originally built for propeller planes and many airports are in congested areas where it is difficult to meet newer safety standards. For instance, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling for a runway safety area, usually extending 500 feet (150 m) to each side and 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the end of a runway. This is intended to cover ninety percent of the cases of an aircraft leaving the runway by providing a buffer space free of obstacles. Since this is a recent rule, many airports do not meet it. One method of substituting for the 1,000 feet (300 m) at the end of a runway for airports in congested areas is to install an Engineered materials arrestor system, or EMAS. These systems are usually made of a lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the energy of the aircraft to bring it to a rapid stop. They have stopped three aircraft (as of 2005) at JFK Airport. The Greater-Chicago Area featuring Chicago-Midway and OHare International Airports Chicago Midway International Airport (IATA: MDW, ICAO: KMDW, FAA LID: MDW), also known simply as Midway Airport, is an airport in Chicago, Illinois, United States, located on the citys southwest side, eight miles from Chicagos Loop. ... A runway safety area (RSA) is defined as the surface surrounding the runway prepared or suitable for reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway. ... An Engineered materials arrestor system (EMAS) is a bed of lightweight, crushable concrete built at the end of a runway. ... , For the regional airport in Wisconsin, see John F. Kennedy Memorial Airport. ...

Infection

In considering that on an airplane, hundreds of people sitting in a confined space for extended periods of time should result in the ready transmission of airborne infections should not come as a surprise.^[13][14] For this reason, airlines place restrictions on the travel of passengers with known airborne contagious diseases (e.g. tuberculosis). During the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic of 2003, awareness of the possibility of acquisition of infection on a commercial aircraft reached it zenith when on one flight from Hong Kong to Beijing, 16 of 120 people on the flight developed proven SARS from a single index case.^[15] Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or Tuberculosis) is a common and deadly infectious disease caused by mycobacteria, mainly Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ... Severe acute respiratory syndrome or SARS is a respiratory disease in humans which is caused by the SARS coronavirus. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... “Peking” redirects here. ... The index case or patient zero is the initial patient in the population sample of an epidemiological investigation. ...

There is very limited research (and this has been edited) done on contagious diseases on aircraft. The two most common respiratory pathogens to which air passengers are exposed are parainfluenza and influenza.^[16] Certainly, the flight ban imposed following the attacks of September 11, 2001 restricted the ability of influenza to spread around the globe, resulting in a much milder influenza season that year,^[17] and the ability of influenza to spread on aircraft has been well documented.^[13] There is no data on the relative contributions of large droplets, small particles, close contact, surface contamination, and certainly no data on the relative importance of any of these methods of transmission for specific diseases, and therefore very little information on how to control the risk of infection. There is no standardisation of air handling by aircraft, installation of HEPA filters or of hand washing by air crew, and no published information on the relative efficacy of any of these interventions in reducing the spread of infection.^[18] This false-colored electron micrograph shows a malaria sporozoite migrating through the midgut epithelia. ... The Respiratory System Among four-legged animals, the respiratory system generally includes tubes, such as the bronchi, used to carry air to the lungs, where gas exchange takes place. ... A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. ... Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs) are a group of four distinct serotypes of single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the paramyxovirus family. ... Influenza, commonly known as flu, is an infectious disease of birds and mammals caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). ... is the 254th day of the year (255th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... HEPA (IPA: ) is a type of air filter. ...

Accidents and incidents

• List of airship accidents
• Aviation accidents and incidents
• Flight recorder, includes Flight data recorder and Cockpit voice recorder

1919 American Wingfoot Air Express. ... Capt. ... In aircraft, the flight data recorder (FDR) and the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) are used to record aircraft and pilot behavior in order to analyze accidents, and are usually called black boxes by the news media. ...

Investigators

• Australian Transport Safety Bureau
• Transportation Safety Board of Canada
• Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (France)
• Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung (Germany)
• Air Accident Investigation Unit (Ireland)
• Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Commission (Japan)
• Air Accidents Investigation Branch (UK)
• National Transportation Safety Board (USA)

The Australian Transport Safety Bureau [1] (ATSB) is an operationally independent body within the Australian Government Department of Transport and Regional Services and is Australia’s prime agency for transport safety investigations. ... The Transportation Safety Board (Bureau de la sécurité des transports du Canada) is the Canadian agency responsible for maintaining transportation safety in Canada. ... The Bureau dEnquêtes et dAnalyses pour la sécurité de lAviation Civile (BEA) is an agency of the French government, responsible for investigating aviation accidents and making safety recommendations based on what is learned from those investigations. ... The Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung (translation: German Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accidents Investigation) is the German federal agency responsible for air accident investigation. ... The Air Accident Investigation Unit (AAIU) is part of the Department of Transport of the Republic of Ireland, and is responsible for the investigation of aircraft accidents and serious incidents within the Irish Republic and in some cases to Irish registered aircraft elsewhere. ... Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Commission (航空・鉄道事故調査委員会, Koku-tetsudojiko chosa iinkai, ARAIC) is the commission belonging to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Japan), founded in 1974 as Aircraft Accidents Investigation Commission . ... The Air Accidents Investigation Branch investigates air accidents in the United Kingdom. ... Seal of the National Transportation Safety Board The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is a U.S. government independent organization responsible for investigation of accidents involving aviation, highway, marine, pipelines and railroads in the United States. ...

Regulation

• Department of Transport and Regional Services (Australia)
• Transport Canada
• Joint Aviation Authorities (Europe)
• European Aviation Safety Agency
• Irish Aviation Authority
• United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority
• Federal Aviation Administration (US)
  • Federal Aviation Regulations

The Department of Transport and Regional Services (DOTARS) is an Australian Government department. ... Transport Canada is the department within the government of Canada which is responsible for developing regulations, policies and services of transportation in Canada. ... The Joint Aviation Authorities, or JAA, is the predominant regulatory body for aviation in Europe. ... Agency of the European Union Location: Cologne, Germany Formation: - Signed - Established September 28, 2003 Superseding pillar: European Community Director: Patrick Goudou Website: easa. ... The Irish Aviation Authority is responsible for the regulation of air travel in Ireland and in Irish airspace. ... The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) is the public corporation which oversees and regulates all aspects of aviation in the UK. It was established in 1972. ... “FAA” redirects here. ... The Federal Aviation Regulations, or FARs, are rules prescribed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) governing all aviation activities in the United States. ...

See also

• Aviation archaeology
• Aircraft hijacking
• Aircraft safety card
• Avionics
• Avionics software
• Aircraft
• Aviation
• Aviation history
• Aerospace engineering
• Ballistic Recovery Systems (BRS)
• Canadian Air Transport Security Authority
• Flight planning
• Flight training
• General aviation
• Hazard analysis
• Human reliability
• In-flight safety demonstration
• JACDEC - Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre
• Pilot error
• Lasers and aviation safety
• List of air carriers banned in the EU
• Road-traffic safety
• Safety of emergency medical services flights
• Swiss Cheese model of accident causation in human systems
• Transportation safety in the United States
• Windshear

Aviation archaeology, also known as aerospace archaeology or wreck chasing, is a hobby actively practiced throughout the world by both outdoor recreationists and academics in pursuit of finding, documenting, recovering, and preserving sites important in aviation history. ... Hijackers inside flightdeck of TWA Flight 847 Aircraft hijacking (also known as skyjacking and aircraft piracy) is the take-over of an aircraft, by a person or group, usually armed. ... A Qantas aircraft safety card for Boeing 737-400 aircraft. ... Avionics is a portmanteau which literally means aviation electronics. ... Avionics software is embedded software with legally-mandated safety and reliability concerns used in avionics. ... Flying machine redirects here. ... Look up aviation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Leonardo da Vincis Ornithopter body. ... Aerospace engineering is the branch of engineering that concerns aircraft, spacecraft, and related topics. ... It has been suggested that Cirrus Aircraft Parachute System be merged into this article or section. ... BRS may mean: Bradford Riot Squad Bristol International Airport Brotherhood of Railroad Signalmen Ballistic Recovery Systems Boston Red Sox British Road Services - the nationalised UK road haulage operator British Rogue Squadron Category: ... The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (French:Administration canadienne de la sûreté du transport aérien) is a Canadian Crown corporation responsible for the security of air traffic within Canada. ... A Tarom Boeing 737-300 and a United Airlines Boeing 777-200 taxi side by side at London Heathrow Airport. ... Flight training is a course of study used when learning to pilot an aircraft. ... General aviation (abbr. ... In development of avionics, a hazard analysis is used to characterize the elements of risk. ... Human reliability is related to the field of human factors engineering, and refers to the reliability of humans in fields such as manufacturing, transportation, the military, or medicine. ... In-flight safety demonstration (Lufthansa Flight attendant) The in-flight safety demonstration (also known as a pre-flight briefing or simply the safety video) is a detailed explanation given before takeoff to airline passengers about the safety features of a commercial aircraft. ... JACDEC stands for the Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre, a German organization which collects data on airline crashes worldwide. ... Pilot error is a term used to describe the cause of a crash of an airworthy aircraft where the pilot is considered to be principally or partially responsible. ... Under certain conditions, laser light or other bright lights (spotlights, searchlights) directed at aircraft can be a hazard. ... The following is a list of air carriers banned in the European Union. ... Road-traffic safety aims to reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) resulting from crashes of road vehicles traveling on public roads. ... An air ambulance helicopter operated by Mercy Air Service, a private emergency medical services aviation company in the U.S. The safety of emergency medical services flights has become a topic of public interest with the expansion of emergency medical services aviation operations, such as air ambulance and MEDEVAC, and... In the Swiss Cheese model, individual weaknesses are modelled as holes in slices of swiss cheese, such as this Emmental. ... Transportation safety has steadily improved in the United States for many decades. ... A photograph of the surface curl soon after an intense microburst impacted the surface A microburst is a very localized column of sinking air, producing damaging divergent and straight-line winds at the surface that are similar to but distinguishable from tornadoes which generally have convergent damage. ...

References

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 288th day of the year (289th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• Airdisaster - Database of Airborne Accidents
• Aviation Safety Network
• Flight Safety
• Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre
• Air Transportation Safety Resources A recently updated comprehensive and annotated bibliography of books and periodicals designed to aid researchers.
• International Air Transport Association (IATA) Operational Safety Audit (IOSA)
• Aviation Safety: Advancements Being Pursued to Improve Airliner Cabin Occupant Safety and Health, 2003
• International Regulatory & Government Agencies
• Airline Safety.com
• NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)
• The Adolescence of Aviation Psychology
• Aviation Safety Quotations
• Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA) Official Website
• Airsafe
• Transport Canada TP 13549 - Sharing the Skies - An Aviation Industry Guide to the Management of Wildlife Hazards