5th century gold coin of King Ebana.

History of Ethiopia Rulers of Ethiopia Evolution of Hominids Prehistory Punt (3rd millennium BC–1st m. BC) D'mt (8th century BC–7th century BC) Proto-Aksum (5th c. BC–1st c. BC) Aksum (1st c. BC–10th c. AD) Gudit (10th century AD) Zagwe Dynasty (10th or 11th c.–1268) Solomonic dynasty (1270–1974) First Solomonic period (1270–1527) Great Oromo migration (1522–17th c.) Invasion of Gragn (1527–1543) Ottoman Invasion (1557–17th c.) Gondarine dynasty (1606–1755) Zemene Mesafint (1755–1855) Modernization (1855–1936) Italian occupation (1936–1941) Second Modernization (1941–1974) Derg (1974–1991) Transitional government (1991–1993) EPRDF (1993–present) Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998–2000)
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Aksumite currency was the only native currency to be issued in Africa without direct influence by an outside culture like the Romans or Greeks, e.g. it was issued and circulated from the middle of the height of the Kingdom under King Endubis around AD 270 until it began its decline in the first half of the 7th century. No sub-Saharan state would mint coins after Aksum until the Kilwa sultanate in the tenth century.^[1] Ebana (5th century) was a king of Axum. ... Image File history File links AxumObelisk. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The following is a list of rulers and heads of state of Ethiopia since the Zagwe dynasty. ... The Land of Punt, which the Ancient Egyptians called Ta Netjeru, meaning Land of the Gods, was a fabled and exotic site in eastern Africa, which carried on extensive trade with Ancient Egypt, China and Arabia. ... (4th millennium BC – 3rd millennium BC – 2nd millennium BC – other millennia) // Events The 3rd millennium BC represents the beginning of factual history, since it is the first time we do have real names to name and detailed stories to tell. ... (2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – 1st millennium – other millennia) // Events The Iron Age spread to Western Europe Egypt declined as a major power The Tanakh was written Buddhism was founded by Siddharta Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha (6th century BC) Jainism was founded by Mahavira (6th century BC... Dmt is the Arabic name for a kingdom on the northern Ethiopian plateau that existed from around 800 BC until it was united in the Aksum kingdom around the birth of Jesus. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) Events and trends Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia, Greece. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 7th century BC started on January 1, 700 BC and ended on December 31, 601 BC. // Overview Events Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria who created the the first systematically collected library at Nineveh A 16th century depiction of the Hanging Gardens of... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 5th century BC started on January 1, 500 BC and ended on December 31, 401 BC. // Overview The Parthenon of Athens seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 10th century was that century which lasted from 901 to 1000. ... Gudit (or Judith; also known as Esato) is a semi-legendary non-Christian queen (flourished c. ... The Zagwe Dynasty ruled Ethiopia from the end of the Kingdom of Axum to 1270, when Yekuno Amlak defeated and killed the last Zagwe king in battle. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... Conradin (right) is executed by Charles I of Sicily, thus extinguishing the Hohenstaufen dynasty, in 1268. ... The Solomonid dynasty is the traditional royal house of Ethiopia, claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, who is said to have given birth to the traditional first king Menelik I after her Biblically-described visit to Solomon in Jerusalem. ... For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century. ... 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... Events January 5 - Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, was drowned in the Limmat River in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church. ... Events January 9 - Adrian Dedens becomes Pope Adrian VI. February 26 - Execution by hanging of Cuauhtémoc, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan under orders of conquistador Hernán Cortés. ... Map of ethnic Somali And Ethiopian from the book Islam In Ethiopia by J Spencer Trimingham with regard to this history Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi(1506-43) nicknamed Gran the left-handed embarked on a conquest which brought three-quarters of Abyssinia into the power of the Muslim... // Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ... Events Spain is effectively bankrupt. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... Events January 27 - The trial of Guy Fawkes and other conspirators begins ending in their execution on January 31 May 17 - Supporters of Vasili Shusky invade the Kremlin and kill Premier Dmitri December 26 - Shakespeares King Lear performed in court Storm buries a village of St Ismails near... 1755 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Some historians date the murder of Iyasu I, and the resultant decline in the prestige of the dynasty, as the beginning of the Ethiopian Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes,) a time of disorder when the power of the monarchy was eclipsed by the power of local warlords. ... 1855 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1936 (MCMXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Combatants Italy Ethiopia Commanders Strength 800,000 (only ~330,000 mobilized) 100,000 (some ill-equipped) Casualties 15,000 16,000 {{{notes}}} The Second Italo-Abyssinian War, also called the Rape of Ethiopia, lasted seven months in 1935-1936. ... For the movie, see 1941 (film) 1941 (MCMXLI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1941 calendar). ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... The Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front, or EPRDF, is the ruling political party of Ethiopia. ... Combatants Eritrea Ethiopia Commanders Unknown Unknown Casualties 19,000 123,000[1] [2] The Eritrean-Ethiopian War took place from May 1998 to June 2000 between Ethiopia and Eritrea. ... 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... This article is about the year 2000. ... For other uses, see Africa (disambiguation). ... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... Kings during the zenith of the Kingdom of Axum The following based on S.C. Munro-Hay, Aksum (Edinburgh: University Press, 1991), pp. ... Endubis (c. ... Events Quintillus briefly holds power over the Roman Empire, and is succeeded by Aurelian Vandals and Sarmatians driven out of Roman territory Romans leave Utrecht after regular invasions of Germanic people. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Kilwa Kisiwani is an Islamic community on an island off the coast of East Africa, in present day Tanzania. ...

Aksum's currency served as a vessel of propaganda demonstrating the kingdom's wealth and promoting the national religion (first polytheistic and later Oriental Christianity), as well as facilitating the Red Sea trade on which it thrived.^[2] The coinage has also proved invaluable in providing a reliable chronology of Aksumite kings due to the lack of extensive archaeological work in the area.^[3] The term Oriental Orthodoxy refers to the churches of Eastern Christian traditions that keeps the faith of only the first three ecumenical councils of the undivided Church - the councils of Nicea, Constantinople and Ephesus. ...

Origins

Pre-coinage period

Though the issuing of minted coins didn't begin until around 270, metal coins may have been used in Aksum centuries prior to centralized minting. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions that the Aksumite state imported brass (Gr. orokhalkos), "which they use[d] for ornaments and for cutting as money", and they imported "a little money (denarion) for [use by] foreigners who live there." It can be inferred, therefore, that early Aksumite kings, located on the international trading waters of the Red sea, recognized the utility of a standardized currency for facilitating both domestic and international trade.^[4] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei ) is a Greek periplus, describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along East Africa and India. ... Greek (, IPA - Hellenic) is an Indo-European language with a documented history of 3,500 years, the longest in the Indo-European family if the Anatolian languages are excluded. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ...

Influences

Though Aksumite coins are indigenous in design and creation, some outside influences encouraging the use of coins is undeniable. By the time coins were first minted in Aksum, there was widespread trade with Romans on the Red sea; Kushana or Persian influence also cannot be ruled out. Roman, Himyarite, and Kushana coins have all been found in major Aksumite cities, however, only very small quantities have been attested and the circulation of foreign currency seems to have been limited.^[5] Though South Arabian kingdoms had also minted coins, they had already gone out of use by the time of certain Aksumite involvement in South Arabia under GDRT, and only very rarely produced electrum or gold denominations (silver mainly in Saba' and Himyar, while bronze in Hadhramaut), making influence unlikely. The major impetus, however, was not emulation but economical; the Red sea and its coasts had always been an international trade area and coins would greatly facilitate trade and wealth in the now "world power."^[1] Despite these influences, the coins were of genuinely indigenous design, and foreign influences were relatively weak and few in number.^[6] The Roman Empire was a phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by an autocratic form of government. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Himyar was a state in ancient South Arabia dating from 110 BC. It conquered neighbouring Saba in 25 BC, Qataban in AD 50 and Hadramaut AD 100. ... The term South Arabia commonly refers to either: the Federation of South Arabia or the Protectorate of South Arabia This is a disambiguation page — a list of articles associated with the same title. ... GDRT (vocalized by historians as Gadarat) was a king of Axum (c. ... Electrum coin of the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. ... Gold coins are one of the oldest forms of coinage. ... The Sabaeans were an ancient people speaking a South Semitic language who lived in what is today Yemen and for a time in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. ... Assorted ancient bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling. ... Hadhramaut or Hadramawt (Arabic: حضرموت [Ḥaḍramawt]) is a governorate of the Republic of Yemen and a wider historical region of the south Arabian peninsula along the Gulf of Aden in the Arabian Sea, extending eastwards from Yemen (proper) to the Dhofar region of Oman. ...

Pre-Christian period

Aksumite currency came in the later stages of the growth of the empire when its golden age had already begun. The minting of coins began around 270, beginning with the reign of Endubis. The Golden Age by Pietro da Cortona. ...

Source of Materials

Gold

Gold seems to have been acquired from a number of sources. Gold probably came from Sasu (southern Sudan), as well as more nearby Ethiopian sources, though the latter isn't well documentated for the north. A gold trade from the southern areas of Ethiopia such as the medeival province/kingdom of Innarya has been attested from the 6th century (i.e. from the writings of Cosmas Indicopleustes) and continued through James Bruce's day (18th c.). Gold also came from more northerly sources such as Gojjam, Beja lands, and what is now Eritrea, though the latter two are less certain.^[7] However, a recent gold exploration assay in Eritrea has found significant gold deposits at Emba Derho, and deposits are also attested at Zara in central-western Eritrea.^[8] Bisha is a large precious metal and base metal-rich volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposit. Suggested models for the deposit include felsic dominated bimodal-siliclastic VMS and Noranda/Kuroko type deposits and a comparison has been made to the Matagami VMS district in Quebec. Cosmas Indicopleustes (India-voyager) of Alexandria was a Greek sailor in the early 6th century who travelled to Ethiopia, India and Sri Lanka. ... See also James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin. ... Gojjam, or Gojam, was a province in the north-western part of Ethiopia, with its capital city at Debra Markos. ... BEJA PEOPLE The Beja tribes are the indigenous inhabitants of the Eastern Region of the Sudan. ... Zara is: the Italian name of the city of Zadar (official 13th-20th century) the Italian cruiser Zara the Zara class cruiser A Spain-based chain of retail clothing stores and clothing brand the name of an Austrian NGO committed to anti-racism work (www. ...

Continued exploration has lead to the discovery of two additional satellite deposits within the Bisha Concession; The Northwest Zone, located approximately 1.5 km northwest of the Bisha Main Zone, and the Harena Deposit, located approximately 9.5 km, along strike, to the southwest of the Bisha Main Zone. These two satellite deposits are viewed as potential sources of supplemental feed for the proposed processing facility at Bisha.

Silver and Others

While local sources of gold are attested during the Aksumite era, silver seems to have been rarer in Aksum. No mention of silver mines in the region exist until the 15th and 16th centuries. Though silver was imported as attested by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,^[9] given the preponderance of silver coins, it could not have been the only source of silver in Aksum. Furthermore, a significant number of the silver coins contain gold inlays (presumably to increase the value), which would have been unnecessary if silver were so rare that it had to be mainly imported.^[7] Silver may have been obtained from the refinement of gold, which sometimes occurs naturally with silver in an alloy called electrum.^[3] Copper and bronze do not seem to have existed locally in the Aksumite empire, though they were noted as imports in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.^[7] General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Atomic mass 107. ... Electrum coin of the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic brown Atomic mass 63. ... Assorted ancient bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling. ...

Value

Though the gold coins were certainly the most valuable issue, followed by the silver one, the exact relationship between the three issues (gold, silver, and bronze) is not known. The supply of gold was closely controlled by the Aksumite state, as noted by Cosmas Indicopleustes, and other precious metals were undoubtedly also closely controlled, allowing the Aksumite state to ensure the usage of its currency. ^[10]

The quality of the Aksumite coins were also closely controlled, usually of high purity. For example, the lowest purity of gold recorded thus far for Aphilas is 90%.^[11] Early issues were often very close to their theoretical weights, and some were even over.^[12]) However, the weight of the coins tended to decrease over time (though not continuously or uniformly).^[3][11] This may have reflected a desire to conform to the Diocletian monetary reform of 312, when the aureus was decreased from 1/60th of a pound to 1/72nd. Despite decreases in weight, the purity of the gold was largely maintained, even by later kings. The abundance of relative abundant Aksumite coins as well as the many that have yet to be found^[13] indicate that Aksum must have had access to large quantities of gold.^[11] Aureus minted in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrate XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix, the legion that proclamed him emperor. ...

Design

Sketch of gold coin of Wazeba using the Ge'ez script and language.

The coins were often inscribed in Greek, as much of its trade was with the "Graecised Orient." Later inscriptions would make more use of Ge'ez, the language of the Aksumites, perhaps indicating a decline in its use for more international trade (i.e. with Rome and India). The obverse of the coins would always feature an image of the king (almost always in profile) wearing either a crown or helmet/regnal headcloth. The headcloth had some image perhaps representing pleats, rays, or sunburst in the front, as well as the tied end of a cloth or fillet to hold the helmet or headcloth in place. Most coins also included an inscription (usually in Greek) meaning "King of Aksum" or King of the Aksumites" (Basileus AXWMITW).^[10] However, many coins were also minted anonymously (or even posthumously), especially during the 5th century.^[3] Inscriptions on the coins could include a bisi name ("man of," Ge'ez bə'əsyä ብእስየ^[14][15]) or an epithet (beginning with Əllä, Ge'ez እለ "he who") in addition to the king's personal name. Bisi names were used more often in conjuncture with personal names on earlier coins, while the epithets were more common in later years, being the only inscribed name in a few sources.^[3] Greek text was used in conjunction with Ge'ez inscriptions, but was the only language used on the gold coins, with the exception of the Ge'ez language coins of Wazeba and MHDYS. Over time, the Greek used on the coins (gold, silver and bronze) deteriorated, indicative of Aksum's decline. Moreover, beginning with MHDYS for bronze coins and Wazeba for silver coins, Ge'ez gradually replaced Greek on the legends.^[16] Geez (also transliterated Giiz, , and pronounced IPA ; ISO 639-2 gez) is an ancient South Semitic language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ... Geez (also transliterated Giiz, , and pronounced IPA ; ISO 639-2 gez) is an ancient South Semitic language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ... The Geez language (or Giiz language) is an ancient language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ... Geez (also transliterated Giiz, , and pronounced IPA ; ISO 639-2 gez) is an ancient South Semitic language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ... MHDYS (vocalized by historians as Mehadeyis) was a king of Axum (c. ... MHDYS (vocalized by historians as Mehadeyis) was a king of Axum (c. ...

Mottoes

Aksumite coins used a number of mottos throughout the period in which they were minted, beginning in the early 4th century. Around this time, numerous anonymous bronze coins with simply Βασιλεύς (Basileus, "King") on the obverse were minted by either King Ezana or one of his successors. The coins bore the first example of an Aksumite motto on the reverse, "May this please the people" (Greek TOYTOAPECHTHXWPA). It was later written in unvocalized Ge'ez as ለሐዘበ ፡ ዘየደአ LʾḤZB ZYDʾ and under King Kaleb also ለሀገረ ፡ ዘየደአ LHGR ZYDʾ, "may this please the city [country]." Ezana of Axum was ruler of the Axumite Kingdom from about 320 to 350 AD. Ezana succeeded his father Ella Amida while still a youth and his mother, Sofya served as regent. ... Kaleb (c. ...

Endubis

Gold coin of King Endubis with royal headcloth/helmet, grains, and Star and crescent representing the moon god Ilumqah.

Main article: Endubis

Endubis, the first known Aksumite king to mint coins, focused almost entirely on his image on both the obverse and reverse. The images were of his head and upper half of his chest in profile, wearing a regnal headcloth or helmet and abundant jewelry. In addition to inscribing his regnal name, Endubis also noted his "bisi name, a practice continued by his early successors, but often missing in later coins. The bisi name was a sort of tribal affiliation or "ethnikon" (i.e. a reference to the king's lineage) that was different for every king.^[10] Endubis also emphasized his religion through the pre-Christian symbol of the disk and cresent as a propaganda method (a purpose which the coins already served). A second motif used by Endubis and continued by following coins was that of two (though sometimes one in later years) ears of barley or wheat around the image of his head in profile. Though no inscriptional evidence exists, given its prominent position around the image of the king, the two ears of barley (or wheat) may have been representative symbols of the Aksumite state.^[2] Though later coins would be smaller, Endubis chose the Roman aureus to standardize Aksumite coin weights against, with gold issues at half-aureus around 2.70 grams (more precisely, the theoretical weight may have been 2.725g^[11]).^[10] Endubis (c. ... A typical presentation of the star and crescent The star and crescent is a symbol consisting of a crescent with a star at the concave side. ... Endubis (c. ... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ...

Aphilas

Gold coin of King Aphilas with royal tiara and features inherited from Endubis; the coin was pierced for use as jewellery and is typical of Aksumite gold coins found in India.

Main article: Aphilas

Whereas all of Endubis's coins feature the king with a headcloth or helmet, Aphilas's coins show the king wearing an impressive high crown on top of the headcloth. The crown featured colonnades of arches supporting high spikes, on top of which rested large discs of unidentified composition. In addition to the crown and headcloth, Aphilas's coins included further images of regalia, such as a spear, a branch with berries, the depiction of the arms, the addition of tassels with fringes to the imperial robe, and more jewelry, such as amulets and bracelets. Despite this innovation, Aphilas continued to use the image of himself in the regnal headcloth in some coins, sometimes as the reverse, while his crowned image is only found on the obverse.^[17] Aphilas (early 4th century) was a king of Axum. ... Aphilas (early 4th century) was a king of Axum. ...

One of his issues included his frontal image on the obverse, which ended with his reign and was only revived by the late kings. Two other minting features of Aphilas were also abandoned by later rulers. One of these was the use of just the inscription "King Aphilas" as the reverse of a coin, the only purely epigraphical side ever used on an Aksumite coin. The other was his use of a single ear of barely or wheat as a reverse, though his use of two ears circling around the king's image continued.^[12]

Aphilas introduced a number of different standards for all three metals, some of which lasted through to the 7th century, while the use of others ended with his reign. His new gold coins (issued in conjunction with the older) of a quarter aureus and eighth aureus were soon abandoned (each are known from only one specimen), and 1/16th aureus coins have been found, though these are more likely to be deliberate debasements to increase profit (Aksumite gold was generally very pure, however^[11]).^[18] Aphilas's silver coin, however, issued at half the weight of the former, became the new Aksumite standard for silver up until the end of coinage. The older coin was presumably more valuable than needed, and the new coin remedied the problem. Aphilas's bronze issue, however, was instead doubled to 4.83 grams. The coin's rarity may attest to its quick withdrawal from the market, as is assumed with his quarter-aureus. These two issues are the only one of Aphilas's issues to portray him frontally, rather than in profile.^[12]

Ezana

Anonymous bronze coin with Christian cross on reverse.

Main article: Ezana

During Ezana's reign a major change in both the Aksumite kingdom and its coinage took place as a result of the change of the official religion to Christianity, one of the first states ever to do so. While Ezana's coins in the first half of his reign are almost identical to thos of Aphilas, barring minimal weight reductions, those of his second half employ revolutionary designs. With his conversion to Christianity, Ezana began to feature the Cross on his coins, the first time the Christian cross had ever been featured in coinage in the world. Some of his gold Christian coins are of the weight before Constantine's weight reform in 324, indicating a conversion before this date or perhaps a few years after, as the Aksumite coinage may not have changed weights immediately.^[19] Along with the adoption of the Cross on his coins came, of course, the abandonment of the star and crescent symbol on the coins. Later Christian coins reflect the adoptment of the 4.54 g standard by Constantine, with theoretical weights in Aksumite coins likewise dropping to 1.70 g for the gold coins.^[20] The traditional form of the Western Christian cross, known as the Latin cross. ... Ezana of Axum was ruler of the Axumite Kingdom from about 320 to 350 AD. Ezana succeeded his father Ella Amida while still a youth and his mother, Sofya served as regent. ... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on Jesus of Nazareth, and on his life and teachings as presented in the New Testament. ... The traditional form of the Western Christian cross, known as the Latin cross. ... // Constantine is a common name derived from the Latin word constans, meaning constant or steadfast. ... A typical presentation of the star and crescent The star and crescent is a symbol consisting of a crescent with a star at the concave side. ...

Silver coin of King Ousanas with no religious symbol.

Coins of Ezana without any symbol at all have also been found, along with similar symboless coins of his father, Ousanas. These may reflect a transition in the religion in Aksum when Frumentius was influencing Ezana's father and gathering Christians in the country, giving weight to the writings of Rufinus.^[20] The lack of symbol altogether may reflect an uncertainty as how best to exhibit the change in religion of the Aksumite state.^[21] Ousanas (c. ... Frumentius (died c. ... Tyrannius Rufinus or Rufinus of Aquileia (between 340 and 345–410 CE) was a monk, historian, and theologian. ...

Gold coin of King Israel.

Weight standards

Gold coins

The gold coin weighed on average 2.5-2.8 grams and was 15-21 mm in diameter at the start of issue, in 270-300. This would make it half an Aureus which weighed 4.62-6.51 grams at the time of Probus. The issue of Israel (570-600) weighed 1.5 grams and was 17 mm in diameter. The Roman solidus of Maurice Tiberius was 4.36-4.47 grams. A majority of these coins were found in South Arabia and not Aksum. The name is unknown so it is referred to as an AU Unit. Gold coins are one of the oldest forms of money. ... Events Quintillus briefly holds power over the Roman Empire, and is succeeded by Aurelian Vandals and Sarmatians driven out of Roman territory Romans leave Utrecht after regular invasions of Germanic people. ... Events Romano-Celtic temple-mausoleum complex is constructed in Lullingstone, and also in Anderida (approximate date). ... This antoninianus minted under Probus (c. ... Events First mention of the Spear of Destiny (approximate date). ... For other uses, see number 600. ... Diameter is an AAA (authentication, authorization and accounting) protocol for applications such as network access or IP mobility. ... Solidus (Latin) is the name of a Roman coin during the Roman Empire. ... Maurice may refer to: Maurice, Elector of Saxony, a German nobleman Maurice (emperor), a Byzantine emperor Maurice, a novel by E. M. Forster Maurice, a 1987 film based on the Forster novel Maurice River, a tributary of the Delaware River in New Jersey Saint Maurice, a legendary martyr Maurice Ravel... The term South Arabia commonly refers to either: the Federation of South Arabia or the Protectorate of South Arabia This is a disambiguation page — a list of articles associated with the same title. ... // Au may refer to: Gold, an element in the periodic table Alternative universe (fan fiction), a fan fiction term Annals of Ulster, in Irish historical writings Au is a cartwheel (Capoeira) in the Brazilian martial art of Capoeira Au (區 or 歐) is a family name in Hong Kong In science Astronomical...

Silver coin of King MHDYS (vocalized Mehadeyis) with cross.

MHDYS (vocalized by historians as Mehadeyis) was a king of Axum (c. ...

Silver coinage

Also starting with Endubis these coins were 2.11-2.5 grams in weight which is half the weight of a Roman antoninianus of 3.5-4.5 grams. A Denarius in the early 3rd century was 2.5-3.00 grams of 52% or less of silver, but the Aksum coins were almost pure silver at first later debased. The name is unknown so it is referred to as an AR Unit. Silver coins are possibly the oldest form of money. ... Row 1: Elagabalus (silver 218-222AD), Trajan Decius (silver 249-251AD), Gallienus (billon 253-268AD Asian mint) Row 2: Gallienus (copper 253-268AD), Aurelian (silvered 270-275AD), barbarous radiate (copper), barbarous radiate (copper) The antoninianus was a coin used during the Roman Empire that was valued at 2 denarii. ... BIC pen cap, about 1 gram. ... First row : c. ... AR, Ar or ar can mean: AR Abandoned Realms[1], a mud(Multi User Dungeon) in which roleplay(RP) is enforced and playerkilling(PK) is strongly encouraged Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad, (AAR reporting mark Accelerated Reader, educational reading assessment software Accounts Receivable, an accounting term Acoustic Research, a brand name...

Coin of King Armah seated on throne.

Armah (c. ...

Base coinage

Most bronze and silver coins have mainly been found in Aksum territory with very few pieces found in Judea, Meroe and Egypt. They are based roughlty on the size of older roman As and Sestertius in shape and thickness. The design also developed like Roman coins in first being good but then the pictures turn archaic and non recognisable. The name is unknown so it is referred to as a AE diameter im mm Unit, like AE17 for a coin of 17 mm. Coinage is: A Drinking game also known as Quarters a series of coins struck as part of currency a magazine about numismatics, capitalized: COINage The right or process of making coins The creation of a neologism, or new word; see word coinage The duty or tax on refined tin, abolished... Judea or Judaea (יהודה Praise, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew ) (Greek: Ιουδαία) is a term used for the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ ישראל Eretz Yisrael), an area now divided between Israel and the West Bank, and, in a few geographical definitions of Judea, Jordan. ... Aerial view of the pyramids at Meroe. ... The As (plural Asses) was a bronze, and later copper, coin used during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire, named after the homonymous weight unit (12 unciae = ounces), but not immune to weight depreciation. ... The sestertius was an ancient Roman coin. ... The form Æ or æ is also a letter and ligature in the Latin alphabet. ...

Coin of King Ousanas with two holes, typical of Aksumite gold coins found in India.

Ousanas (c. ...

Trade

At the time of Aksum's minting of currency, the state already had a long trade history with Greece, Rome, the Persian Empire, and India. That coinage began so late is in fact a little surprising. The late use of coinage may be attributed to the lack of a developed economy, required for coinage to be accepted.^[1] Most Aksumite coins were found in the large trade centres with very few in remote villages, where trade would be more through barter and not coinage based.^[5] In fact, the motivation for Aksum's initial minting of coins was for foreign trade and markets, as evidenced by the use of Greek on most of its coins.^[10] Moreover, gold coins seem to have been intended primarily for external trade, while copper and silver coins probably mainly circulated within the Aksumite empire, as the gold issues generally specified "king of the Aksumites" as title of the Aksumite king, whereas the title of silver and copper issues generally only read "king."^[22] International use of Aksumite coins seems to have begun early on, as coins of King Ezana and even of King Aphilas (the second Aksumite ruler to issue coins) have been found in India.^[23] It has been suggested that Swapping (barter) be merged into this article or section. ...

Decline

During the 7th century, Aksumite power began to fail, and Ethiopian society began to withdraw further into the highland hinterlands, with the coastal areas becoming peripheral areas (whereas Adulis on the coast was once the second city of Aksum). The coins continued circulation, but were restricted to more local areas such as Nubia, South Arabia and the Horn of Africa. The Ethiopian Highlands are a rugged mass of mountains in Ethiopia and Eritrea in northeastern Africa. ... Adulis is an archeological site in Eritrea, about 30 miles south of Massawa. ... The second city of a country is the city that is (or was) the second-most important, usually after the capital or first city, according to some criteria. ... Aerial view of the pyramids at Meroe. ... Nations of the Horn of Africa. ...

Archaeology

Due to the nature of the coins (e.g. providing kings' names), they have proved essential in constructing a chronology of the Kings of Aksum. An estimated 98% of the city of Aksum ^[24] remains unexcavated, and other areas even more so. Through analysis of the number of coins produced and the style of coins, archaeologists have been able to construct a rough chronology, generally agreed upon until the late 6th and 7th century kings. Of the 20 Aksumite Kings attested by their coins, inscriptions corroborate the existence of only two, who happen to be the most famous kings: Ezana and Kaleb, both of whose reigns were periods of exceptional prosperity during the height of the Aksumite kingdom.^[3] King Ezanas Stele in Axum. ... Ezana of Axum was ruler of the Axumite Kingdom from about 320 to 350 AD. Ezana succeeded his father Ella Amida while still a youth and his mother, Sofya served as regent. ... Kaleb (c. ...

Many coins have been found in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, the central region of Aksum, though Aksumite coins are reported to have been found in Arato and Lalibela.^[5] Many coins have been also found further afield. Numerous hoards of coins (always gold save one silver coin) have been found in Southern Arabia, much more than in Aksum itself, attesting perhaps to an Aksumite presence in parts of the region (perhaps supporting the use of titles claiming control over parts of South Arabia from GDRT's time). The hoards may be the remnants of hoards left in Kaleb's time (perhaps used to pay soldiers), when it was under an Aksumite governor. Outside of the Horn of Africa and Arabian peninsula, coins have been found as far as Israel, Meroe, Egypt, and India.^[22][6] Silver and copper coins are mainly found in Aksum, though some can be traced to Palestinian pilgrim centers.^[6] Lalibela is a city in the Amhara ethnic division, or kilil, of Ethiopia. ... GDRT (vocalized by historians as Gadarat) was a king of Axum (c. ... Nations of the Horn of Africa. ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية, or جزيرة العرب) is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia consisting mainly of desert. ... Aerial view of the pyramids at Meroe. ... Palestine (Hebrew: Palestina, also ארץ ישראל, Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel), a Hebrew term for the same area; Arabic: ‎ Filastīn or Falastīn) is one of many historical names for the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the banks of the Jordan River, plus various adjoining lands to the east and...

In addition to historical evidence, the coins' use of Ge'ez provides valuable linguistic information. Though rarely used, the vocalization of Ge'ez sometimes employed on Aksumite coins allows linguists to analyze vowel changes and shifts that cannot be represented in the older Semitic abjads such as Hebrew, Arabic, South Arabian, and earlier, unvocalized Ge'ez.^[6] The Geez language (or Giiz language) is an ancient language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ... 14th century BC diplomatic letter in Akkadian, found in Tell Amarna. ... An abjad is a type of writing system where there is one symbol per consonantal phoneme, sometimes also called a consonantary. ... Hebrew (עִבְרִית or עברית, ‘Ivrit) is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken by more than seven million people in Israel and Jewish communities around the world. ... The Arabic language (Arabic: ‎ transliterated: ), or simply Arabic (Arabic: ‎ transliterated: ), is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... The ancient South Arabian alphabet (also known as musnad) branched from the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet in ca. ...

References

The daily Seattle Times is the leading newspaper in Seattle, Washington, United States. ...

See also

• Kingdom of Aksum
• Currency
• History of Ethiopia

Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (910x910, 596 KB)Media:Example. ... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

External links

• About Axum
• Photos of Axum coinage
• Axumite Coinage

Bibliography

• Coin comparison for 270-300, Axum gold of: St Munro-Hay & B.Juel-Jensen Axumite Coinage (1995): Coin numbers for Endubis 1,2 & 79. Roman RIC of Probus: 139, 141, 143, 307.
• Coin comparison for 570-600, Axum for Israel of Axum Munro-Hay & Juel-Jensen Axumite Coinage, for Israel: Coin numbers 143, 144. Byzantine Sear of Maurice Tiberius: Coin number 474, 477, 478, 524.