For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation).

Alchemy is an early protoscientific and philosophical discipline combining the elements of chemistry, metallurgy, physics, medicine, astrology, semiotics, mysticism, spiritualism, and art. Alchemy has been practiced in ancient Egypt, India, and China, in Classical Greece and Rome, in the Islamic empire, and then in Europe up to the 19th century — in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years. Image File history File links LinkFA-star. ... Alchemy refers to an early protoscientific practice. ... --203. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Chemistry (derived from the Arabic word kimia, alchemy, where al is Arabic for the) is the science that deals with the properties of organic and inorganic substances and their interactions with other organic and inorganic substances. ... Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ... A black hole concept drawing by NASA. Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), natural, and φύσις (physis), nature) is the science of the natural world dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. ... Medicine is the branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining human health or restoring it through the treatment of disease and injury. ... Astrology (from Greek αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + English suffix, -ology, study or discipline, derived from Greek λόγος, logos, which has a variety of meanings in English generally related to systematic thought or speech) refers to any of several traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions (as seen from earth) of... Semiotics, or semiology, is the study of signs, both individually and grouped in sign systems. ... Mysticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Spiritualism is a religious movement, prominent from the 1840s to the 1920s, often believed by adherents to be a revival of practices in various ancient religions. ... Winged Victory of Samothrace exihibited in the Louvre. ... It has been suggested that Greco-Roman be merged into this article or section. ... City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC mythical, 1st millennium BC Region Latium Mayor Walter Veltroni (Left-Wing Democrats) Area  - City Proper  1285 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2. ... An Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalīfah, Caliph (  listen?) is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

Western alchemy has always been closely connected with Hermeticism, a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to Hermes Trismegistus, a syncretic Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist. These two disciplines influenced the birth of Rosicrucianism, an important esoteric movement of the 17th century. In the 19th century, as mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry, its mystic and Hermetic aspects became the focus of a modern spiritual alchemy, where material manipulations are viewed as mere symbols of spiritual transformations. Hermes Trismegistus depicted as Caucasian in a medieval rendering. ... Hermes Trismegistus (Greek for Hermes the thrice-greatest, Greek: Ερμης ο Τρισμεγιστος) or Mercurius ter Maximus in Latin, is the syncretism of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian Thoth. ... Syncretism is the attempt to reconcile disparate, even opposing, beliefs and to meld practices of various schools of thought. ... The Temple of the Rosy Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618 The Rosicrucians are a legendary and secretive order dating from the 15th or 17th century, generally associated with the symbol of the Rose Cross, which is also used in certain rituals of the Freemasons. ...

The alchemists did not follow what is now known as the scientific method, and much of the "knowledge" they produced was later found to be banal, limited, wrong, or meaningless. Today, the discipline is of interest mainly to historians of science and philosophy, and for its mystic, esoteric, and artistic aspects. Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern sciences, and we owe to the ancient alchemists the discovery of many substances and processes that are the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries. Scientific method as envisaged by one of its early exponents, Sir Isaac Newton, is fundamental to the investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. ... Science is a body of verifiable empirical knowledge, a global community of scholars, and a set of techniques for investigating the universe known as the scientific method. ... The history of philosophy tracks the multitudinous theories which aim at some kind of understanding, knowledge or wisdom on fundamental matters as diverse as reality, knowledge, meaning, value, being and truth. ... Esotericism refers to knowledge suitable only for the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to exoteric knowledge, which is public. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ...

Overview

The alchemist - by Sir William Fettes Douglas.

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (583x753, 124 KB) Title: The alchemist Painter: Sir William Fettes Douglas (1822 - 1891) Year: ? File links The following pages link to this file: Alchemy ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (583x753, 124 KB) Title: The alchemist Painter: Sir William Fettes Douglas (1822 - 1891) Year: ? File links The following pages link to this file: Alchemy ...

Alchemy as a proto-science

The common perception of alchemists is that they were pseudo-scientists, crackpots and charlatans, who attempted to turn lead into gold, believed that the universe was composed of the four elements of earth, air, fire, and water, and spent most of their time concocting miraculous remedies, poisons, and magic potions. Phrenology is seen today as a classic example of pseudoscience. ... Crank (or kook, crackpot, or quack) is a pejorative term for a person who writes or speaks in an authoritative fashion about a particular subject, often in science, but is alleged to have false or even ludicrous beliefs. ... The Charlatans could refer to two bands The Charlatans, a United States band The Charlatans, a British band, sometimes known in the US as Charlatans UK This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Atomic mass 196. ... It has been suggested that Primordial Elements be merged into this article or section. ... A medication is a licenced drug taken to cure or reduce symptoms of an illness or medical condition. ... The skull and crossbones symbol traditionally used to label a poisonous substance. ... The ancient symbol of the pentagram is often used as a symbol for magic. ... A potion (from Latin potio, potionis, meaning beverage, potion, poison) is a drinkable medicine or poison. ...

This picture is rather unfair. Although many alchemists were indeed crackpots and charlatans, many were well-meaning and intelligent scholars, who were simply struggling to make sense of a subject which, as we now know, was far beyond the reach of their tools. These people were basically "proto-scientists", who attempted to explore and investigate the nature of chemical substances and processes. They had to rely on unsystematic experimentation, traditional know-how, rules of thumb, — and plenty of speculative thought to fill in the wide gaps in existing knowledge. A rule of thumb is an easily learned and easily applied procedure for approximately calculating or recalling some value, or for making some determination. ...

Given these conditions, the mystic character of alchemy is quite understandable: to the early alchemist, chemical transformations could only seem magical phenomena governed by incomprehensible laws, whose potential and limitations he or she had no way of knowing. Having discovered that a specific procedure could turn an earth-like ore into glistening metal, it was only natural to speculate that some different procedure could turn a metal into another.

At the same time, it was clear to the alchemists that "something" was generally being conserved in chemical processes, even in the most dramatic changes of physical state and appearance; i.e. that substances contained some "principles" that could be hidden under many outer forms, and revealed by proper manipulation. Throughout the history of the discipline, alchemists struggled very hard to understand the nature of these principles, and find some order and sense in the results of their chemical experiments — which were often undermined by impure or poorly characterized reagents, the lack of quantitative measurements, and confusing and inconsistent nomenclature.

In spite of those difficulties, and of many false turns and loops, the alchemists managed to make steady progress in the understanding of the natural world. To them we owe the discovery of many important substances and chemical processes, which paved the way for the modern science of chemistry, and are still the mainstay of today's chemical and metallurgical industries.

The changing goals of alchemy

The best known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals into gold or silver, and the creation of a "panacea", a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. Starting with the Middle Ages, European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the "philosopher's stone", a mythical substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for their pursuit of those unattainable goals, nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day — ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors, and so on. (It seems that the preparation of aqua vitae, the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists.) Look up Alchemist in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Alchemist may refer to— a person who practices alchemy. ... Transmutation is the conversion of one object into another. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Atomic mass 196. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Atomic mass 107. ... The universal panacea (PAN-ah-see-ah), one of the goals sought by many alchemists, was a remedy that would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. ... The philosophers stone, in Latin lapis philosophorum, is a mythical substance that supposedly could turn inexpensive metals into gold and/or create an elixir that would make humans younger, thus delaying death. ... Aqua vitae, not to be confused with the beverage aquavit, is an archaic name for a concentrated aqueous solution of ethyl alcohol. ...

On the other hand, alchemists never had the intellectual tools nor the motivation to separate the physical (chemical) aspects of their craft from the metaphysical interpretations. Indeed, from antiquity until well into the Modern Age, a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. For one thing, the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes, as well as the need for secrecy, led alchemists to borrow the terms and symbols of biblical and pagan mythology, astrology, kabbalah, and other mystic and esoteric fields; so that even the plainest chemical recipe ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation. Moreover, alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental facts. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Bible (Hebrew תנ״ך [tanakh], Greek η Βίβλος [hē biblos] ) (sometimes The Holy Bible, The Book, Good Book, Word of God, The Word, or Scripture), from Greek (τα) βίβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, is the classical name for the Hebrew Bible of Judaism or the combination of the Old Testament and New Testament of Christianity... Paganism (from Latin paganus) and Heathenry are catch-all terms which have come to connote a broad set of spiritual/religious beliefs and practices of a natural religion, as opposed to the Abrahamic religions. ... The word mythology (from the Greek μυολογία mythología, from μυολογειν mythologein to relate myths, from μυος mythos, meaning a narrative, and λογος logos, meaning speech or argument) literally means the (oral) retelling of myths – stories that a particular culture believes to be true and that use supernatural events or characters to explain the... Astrology (from Greek αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + English suffix, -ology, study or discipline, derived from Greek λόγος, logos, which has a variety of meanings in English generally related to systematic thought or speech) refers to any of several traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions (as seen from earth) of... Kabbalah (Hebrew קַבָּלָה reception, Standard Hebrew Qabbala, Tiberian Hebrew Qabbālāh; also written variously as Cabala, Cabalah, Cabbala, Cabbalah, Kabala, Kabalah, Kabbala, Qabala, Qabalah, Kaballah) is an interpretation (exegesis, hermeneutic) key, soul of the Torah (Hebrew Bible), or the religious mystical system of Judaism claiming an insight into divine nature. ... Esotericism refers to knowledge suitable only for the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to exoteric knowledge, which is public. ...

Starting with the middle ages, alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and chemical substances, physical states, and material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, states and transformations. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laborously "decoded" in order to discover their true meaning. Alchemical symbols, originally devised as part of the protoscience of alchemy, were used to denote some elements and some compounds until the 18th century. ...

Some humanistic scholars now see these spiritual and metaphysical allegories as the truest and most valuable aspect of alchemy, and even claim that the development of chemistry out of alchemy was a "corruption" of the original Hermetic tradition. Most scientists, on the other hand, tend to take quite the opposite view: to them, the path from the material side of alchemy to modern chemistry was the "straight road" in the evolution of the discipline, while the metaphysically oriented brand of alchemy was a "wrong turn" that led to nowhere. In any case, the naïve interpretations of some alchemists or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the undertakings of the more sincere practitioners.

Alchemy and astrology

Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to astrology — which, in Islam and Europe, generally meant the traditional Babylonian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven planets known to the ancients "ruled" or was associated with a certain metal. See the separate article on astrology and alchemy for further details. Astrology (from Greek αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + English suffix, -ology, study or discipline, derived from Greek λόγος, logos, which has a variety of meanings in English generally related to systematic thought or speech) refers to any of several traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions (as seen from earth) of... Babylon is the Greek variant of Akkadian Babilu, Ü’Ü’Ü  in Assyrian, an ancient city in Mesopotamia (Location: , , modern Al Hillah, Iraq). ... A planet is generally considered to be a relatively large mass of accreted matter in orbit around a star that is not a star itself. ... Zodiacal man, attributing the various astrological signs to body parts; see the Medical astrology page for more examples Western astrology employs the tropical zodiac which divides the ecliptic into twelve signs of equal length starting at the first point of Aries, which is defined as the point at which the... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily forms ions (cations) and has metallic bonds, and metals are sometimes described as a lattice of positive ions (cations) in a cloud of electrons. ... Alchemy in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. ...

Alchemy in the age of science

Up to the 18th century, alchemy was actually considered serious science in Europe; for instance, Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous, (see Isaac Newton's occult studies). Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are Roger Bacon, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Tycho Brahe, Thomas Browne, and Parmigianino. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism. Sir Isaac Newton, PRS, (4 January [O.S. 25 December 1642] 1643 – 31 March [O.S. 20 March] 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor and natural philosopher who is regarded by many as the most influential scientist in history. ... The unpublished work of Isaac Newton included much that would now be classified as occult studies. ... Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Roger Bacon (c. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas [Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino] (c. ... Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe (December 14, 1546 – October 24, 1601), was a Danish nobleman astronomer as well as an astrologer and alchemist. ... Sir Thomas Browne, MD (October 19, 1605 – October 19, 1682) was an English author of varied works that disclose his wide learning in diverse fields including medicine, religion, science and the esoteric. ... Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror(c. ...

In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist, Baron Carl Reichenbach, researched on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the Odic force, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. Carl Ludwig von Reichenbach Baron Dr. Carl (Karl) Ludwig von Reichenbach (February 12, 1788- January 19, 1869) was a recognized chemist, metallurgist, naturalist and philosopher, a member of the prestigious Prussian Academy of Sciences. ... Also called Od [õd] and Odyle, Odic Force is the 19th century name given to a hypothetical vital energy or life force that proponents say permeates all living plants, animals, and humans. ...

Matter transmutation, the old ideal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms into gold atoms via a nuclear reaction. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable isotopes, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element transmutation — by means of electrolysis or sonic cavitation — were the pivot of the cold fusion controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated. In nuclear physics, a nuclear reaction is a process in which two nuclei or nuclear particles collide, to produce products different to the initial products. ... // Isotopes are forms of an element whose nuclei have the same atomic number–-the number of protons in the nucleus--but different mass numbers because they contain different numbers of neutrons. ... In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric current through them. ... Sonic cavitation is an alchemical term for electrolysis. ... Charles Bennett examines three cold fusion test cells at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA // Cold fusion is the name for a claimed nuclear fusion reaction occurring well below the temperature required for thermonuclear reactions (millions of degrees Celsius) in a relatively small table top apparatus. ...

Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by psychologists and philosophers. Carl Jung reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post-modern contexts, such as the New Age movement. Even some physicists have played with alchemical ideas in books such as The Tao of Physics and The Dancing Wu Li Masters. Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos/-ology = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of the mind and behavior, both human and nonhuman. ... Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 – June 6, 1961) (IPA:) was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of Analytical Psychology. ... Spirituality - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Postmodernism (sometimes abbreviated pomo) is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature, and culture, which are generally characterized as either emerging from, in reaction to, or superseding, modernism. ... New Age describes a broad movement characterized by alternative approaches to traditional Western culture. ... The Tao of Physics (full title: The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism) was a 1975 book by physicist Fritjof Capra, published by Shambhala Publications of Berkeley, California. ... The Dancing Wu Li Masters (ISBN 055326382X) by Gary Zukav (pub. ...

Alchemy as a subject of historical research

The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure—hermetic, of course—language of the alchemists is gradually being "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements, cryptography, witchcraft—and, of course, the evolution of science and philosophy. Kabbala may refer to; Kabbala Village, in the Karnataka State of India Kabbalah, is a religious philosophical system claiming an insight into divine nature. ... Spiritualism is a religious movement, prominent from the 1840s to the 1920s, often believed by adherents to be a revival of practices in various ancient religions. ... The Temple of the Rosy Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618 The Rosicrucians are a legendary and secretive order dating from the 15th or 17th century, generally associated with the symbol of the Rose Cross, which is also used in certain rituals of the Freemasons. ... The Enigma machine, used by Germany in World War II, implemented a complex cipher to protect sensitive communications. ... Witchcraft, in various historical, religious and mythical contexts, is the use of certain kinds of supernatural or magical powers. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Etymology

Look up alchemy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The word alchemy comes from the Arabic al-kīmiyaˀ or al-khīmiyaˀ (الكيمياء or الخيمياء), which might be formed from the article al- and the Greek word chumeia (χυμεία) meaning "cast together", "pour together", "weld", "alloy", etc. (from khumatos, "that which is poured out, an ingot", or from Persian Kimia meaning "gold." A decree of Diocletian, written about 300 CE in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the khēmia [transmutation] of gold and silver". Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wiktionary logo Wiktionary is a sister project to Wikipedia intended to be a free wiki dictionary (including thesaurus and lexicon) in every language. ... Arabic (; , less formally, ) is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... Emperor Diocletian Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (245?–312?), born Diocles, was Roman Emperor as Diocletian from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. ...

It has been suggested that the Arabic word al-kīmiyaˀ actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", kēme (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic, khēme). The Coptic word derives from Demotic kmỉ, itself from ancient Egyptian kmt. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts". However, this theory may be just an example of folk etymology. The Coptic language is the last phase of the Egyptian languages, and is the direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language written in the hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... Demotic script on a replica of the Rosetta stone. ... Folk etymology (or popular etymology) is a linguistic term for a category of false etymology which has grown up in popular lore, as opposed to one which arose in scholarly usage. ...

History

Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in astrology at the time.

Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. Download high resolution version (1560x600, 53 KB)Extract and symbol key from an alchemical text - Kenelm Digby A Choice Collection of Rare Secrets (1682) The image is a combination of two scanned portions of the book Wing_D1426 from Early English Books Online Source: http://www. ... Download high resolution version (1560x600, 53 KB)Extract and symbol key from an alchemical text - Kenelm Digby A Choice Collection of Rare Secrets (1682) The image is a combination of two scanned portions of the book Wing_D1426 from Early English Books Online Source: http://www. ... Astrology (from Greek αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + English suffix, -ology, study or discipline, derived from Greek λόγος, logos, which has a variety of meanings in English generally related to systematic thought or speech) refers to any of several traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions (as seen from earth) of...

One can distinguish at least two major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; and Western alchemy, whose center has shifted over the millennia between Egypt, Greece and Rome, the Islamic world, and finally back to Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system, with only superficial connections to the major Western religions. It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. Alchemy in China In China as in the Western alchemical traditions, alchemy falls into two broad categories - internal and external. ... City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC mythical, 1st millennium BC Region Latium Mayor Walter Veltroni (Left-Wing Democrats) Area  - City Proper  1285 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ( (help· info)), submission (to the will of God)) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions, and the worlds second-largest religion. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... For other uses of the words tao and dao, see Dao (disambiguation). ...

Alchemy in Ancient Egypt

The origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient (pharaonic) Egypt. Metallurgy and mysticism were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class. Map of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization along the Lower Nile, reaching from the Nile Delta in the north as far south Jebel Barkal at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). ... Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ... Mysticism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient (Hellenic) Greek philosophers, which in turn have often survived only in Islamic translations. Practically no original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived. Those writings, if they existed, were likely lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292), which had been a center of Egyptian alchemy. Roman Emperor is the term historians use to refer to rulers of the Roman Empire, after the epoch conventionally named the Roman Republic. ... Emperor Diocletian Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (245?–312?), born Diocles, was Roman Emperor as Diocletian from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. ...

Nevertheless archaeological expeditions in recent times have unearthed evidence of chemical analysis during the Naqada periods. For example, a copper tool dating to the Naqada era bears evidence of having been used in such a way (reference: artifact 5437 on display at [1]). Also, the process of tanning animal skins was already known in Predynastic Egypt as early as the 6th millennium BC [2]; although it possibly was discovered haphazardly. Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Naqada or Naquada is a village on the west bank of the Nile in southern Egypt. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic brown Atomic mass 63. ... Naqada or Naquada is a village on the west bank of the Nile in southern Egypt. ... Tanning is the process of making leather from skin. ... Phyla Porifera (sponges) Ctenophora (comb jellies) Cnidaria (coral, jellyfish, anenomes) Placozoa (trichoplax) Subregnum Bilateria (bilateral symmetry) Acoelomorpha (basal) Orthonectida (parasitic to flatworms, echinoderms, etc. ... Rawhide is a hide or animal skin that has not been exposed to tanning and thus is much lighter in color than treated animal hides. ... The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC) is the period that culminates in the rise of the Old Kingdom and the first of the thirty dynasties based on royal residences, by which Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manethos... (7th millennium BC – 6th millennium BC – 5th millennium BC – other millennia) // Events c. ...

Other evidence indicates early alchemists in ancient Egypt had invented mortar by 4000 BC and glass by 1500 BC. The chemical reaction involved in the production of Calcium Oxide is one of the oldest known (references: Calcium Oxide, limekiln): Map of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization along the Lower Nile, reaching from the Nile Delta in the north as far south Jebel Barkal at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). ... Mortar holding bricks. ... (5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC – 3rd millennium BC - other millennia) Events City of Ur in Mesopotamia (40th century BC). ... This article refers to the material. ... (Redirected from 1500 BC) Centuries: 17th century BC - 16th century BC - 15th century BC Decades: 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC - 1500s BC - 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC Events and Trends Stonehenge built in Wiltshire, England The element Mercury has been... Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as lime, quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. ... Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as lime, quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. ... A 19th century limekiln A limekiln is a kiln used to produce quicklime by the calcination of limestone (calcium carbonate). ...

CaCO₃ + heat → CaO + CO₂.

Ancient Egypt additionally produced cosmetics, cement, faience and also pitch for shipbuilding. Papyrus had also been invented by 3000 BC. Map of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization along the Lower Nile, reaching from the Nile Delta in the north as far south Jebel Barkal at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). ... Closeup of a womans eye while wearing makeup Cosmetics or makeup are substances to enhance the beauty of the human body, apart from simple cleaning. ... Cement is a material for bonding stone or brick. ... Faience or faïence is the conventional name in English for fine tin-glazed earthenware on a delicate pale buff body. ... The pitch drop experiment. ... Men from Francisco de Orellanas expedition building a small brigantine, the San Pedro, to be used in the search for food Shipbuilding is the construction of ships. ... Papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus at Kew Gardens, London Papyrus is an early form of paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that grows to 5 meters (15 ft) in height and was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt. ... (31st century BC - 30th century BC - 29th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2925 - 2776 BC - First Dynasty wars in Egypt 2900 BC - Beginning of the Early Dynastic Period I in Mesopotamia. ...

Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the god Thoth, called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Great Hermes (Hermes Trismegistus) by the Greek. According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge—including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the caduceus or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols. The "Emerald Tablet" or Hermetica of Thrice-Greatest Hermes, which is known only through Greek and Arabic translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. A deity or a god, is a postulated preternatural being, usually, but not always, of significant power, worshipped, thought holy, divine, or sacred, held in high regard, or respected by human beings. ... Thoth (Ramesseum, Luxor) In Egyptian mythology, Thoth (also spelt Thot or Thout), pronounced tot, is the Greek name given to Djehuty (also spelt Tahuti, Tehuti, Zehuti, Techu, Tetu) - the original pronunciation of his name is disputed, and may have been approximately Tee-HOW-ti -, who was originally the deification of... Hermes Trismegistus (Greek for Hermes the thrice-greatest, Greek: Ερμης ο Τρισμεγιστος) or Mercurius ter Maximus in Latin, is the syncretism of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian Thoth. ... the Caduceus A caduceus (kerykeion in Greek) is a staff with two snakes wrapped around it. ... The Emerald Tablet, also known as Smaragdine Table, Tabula Smaragdina, or The Secret of Hermes, is an ancient text purporting to reveal the secret of the primordial substance and its transmutations. ... Hermetica refers to a category of popular Late Antique literature purporting to contain secret wisdom, and generally attributed to Hermes Trismegistus. ... Arabic (; , less formally, ) is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... Hermes Trismegistus depicted as Caucasian in a medieval rendering. ...

The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of hermetical science: "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing." (Burckhardt, p. 196-7) This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic philosophy. In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens through astrology, and the earth through the elements. (Burckhardt,p. 34-42) Macrocosm and microcosm is an ancient Greek schema of seeing the same patterns reproduced in all levels of reality. ... For the definition of the word microcosm, see here. ... Astrology (from Greek αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + English suffix, -ology, study or discipline, derived from Greek λόγος, logos, which has a variety of meanings in English generally related to systematic thought or speech) refers to any of several traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions (as seen from earth) of... It has been suggested that Primordial Elements be merged into this article or section. ...

It has been speculated that a riddle from the Emerald Tablet—"it was carried in the womb by the wind"—refers to the distillation of oxygen from saltpeter—a process that was unknown in Europe until its (re)discovery by Sendivogius in the 17th century. Sodium nitrate is a type of salt(NaNO3)which has long been used as an ingredient in explosives and in solid rocket propellants, as well as in glass and pottery enamel, and as a food preservative (such as in hot dogs), and has been mined extensively for those purposes. ...

In the 4th century BC, the Greek-speaking Macedonians conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria in 332. This brought them into contact with Egyptian ideas. See Alchemy in the Greek World below.

Chinese alchemy

Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appears. The philosophers stone, in Latin lapis philosophorum, is a mythical substance that supposedly could turn inexpensive metals into gold and/or create an elixir that would make humans younger, thus delaying death. ... Elixir, by Yousuf Karsh, 1938 Elixir has several meanings: In alchemy, an elixir was a substance believed to be able to change base metals into gold. ... The universal panacea (PAN-ah-see-ah), one of the goals sought by many alchemists, was a remedy that would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. ...

Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in fireworks by the 10th Century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Arab world and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century. Black powder - here a 100 grams container - can be freely bought in Switzerland. ... The Sydney Harbour Bridge and the Sydney Opera House illuminated under New Years Eve Fireworks 2005 A fireworks event (also called a fireworks display or fireworks show) is a spectacular display of the effects produced by firework devices on various occasions. ... A small cast-iron cannon on a carriage A cannon is any large tubular firearm designed to fire a heavy projectile over a considerable distance. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ...

Black powder was most likely invented in the middle east before it found its way to China. Saltpeter, the critical oxidising component, was found naturally in India and along the Salt trade routes in the Middle East.

Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical). TCM shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. ... Acupuncture chart from the Ming dynasty. ... Moxibustion Moxibustion (Chinese: 灸; pinyin: jiÅ­) is an oriental medicine therapy utilizing moxa, or mugwort herb. ... Hawaiian State Grappling Championships. ... Tai Chi Chuan or Taijiquan (Chinese: 太極拳; Hanyu Pinyin: ; literally supreme ultimate fist), commonly known as Tai Chi, Tai Chi, or Taiji, is a nei chia (internal) Chinese martial art. ... Alternative meaning: Kung Fu (TV series) Kung fu or gongfu (功夫, Pinyin: gōngfu) is a well-known Chinese term used in the West to designate Chinese martial arts. ...

Indian alchemy

Little is known in the West about the character and history of Indian alchemy. An 11th century Persian alchemist named al-Biruni reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which is called Rasavātam. It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." The best example of a text based on this science is The Vaishashik Darshana of Kanada (fl. 600 BC), who described an atomic theory over a century before Democritus. Motto: Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic (Persian: Esteqlāl, āzādÄ«, jomhÅ«rÄ«-ye eslāmÄ«) Anthem: SorÅ«d-e MellÄ«-e Īrān Capital Tehran Largest city Tehran Official language(s) Persian (Western Farsi[1]) Government Supreme Leader President Islamic republic Ali Khamenei Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Revolution Declared Against Reza... Biruni - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Rasavātam was a form of alchemy in early India. ... Kanad was a scholar in ancient India. ...

The texts of Ayurvedic Medicine and Science have aspects related to alchemy, such having cures for all known diseases. The similarities in Ayurveda and alchemy are that both had methods used to treat people by putting oils over them. Ayurveda (आयुर्वेद Sanskrit: ayu—life; veda—knowledge of) or ayurvedic medicine is a more than 2,000 year old comprehensive system of medicine based on a holistic approach rooted in Vedic culture. ... Ayurveda (आयुर्वेद Sanskrit: ayu—life; veda—knowledge of) or ayurvedic medicine is a comprehensive system of medicine, first described by Charaka around the beginning of the Common Era, and based on a holistic approach rooted in earlier Vedic culture. ...

Some people have also noted certain similarities between the metaphysics of the Samkhya philosophical tradition of Hinduism and the metaphysics of alchemy. Whether there is any direct connection between the two systems is an open question. Metaphysics (Greek words meta = after/beyond and physics = nature) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being (ontology). ... Samkhya, also Sankhya, (Sanskrit: सांख्य) is a school of Indian philosophy, and is one of the six astika or Hindu philosophical schools of India. ...

The Rasavadam was understood by very few people at the time. Two famous examples were Nagarjunacharya and Nityanadhiya. Nagarjunacharya was a buddhist monk who, in ancient times, ran the great university of Nagarjuna Sagar. His famous book, Rasaratanakaram, is a famous example of early Indian medicine. In traditional Indian medicinal terminology 'rasa' translates as 'mercury' and Nagarjunacharya was said to have developed a method to convert the mercury into gold. Much of his original writings are lost to us, but his teachings still have strong influence on traditional Indian medicine (Ayureveda) to this day.

Alchemy in the Greek world

The Greek city of Alexandria in Egypt was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of Pythagoreanism, ionianism, and gnosticism. Pythagorean philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a ratio could be derived. Ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy is believed to have originated with Thales and his pupil Anaximander, and later developed by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy. According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified natural laws that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a belief prevalent in the Christian and early post-Christian Roman empire, that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed manner, and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would lead to salvation. They further believed that God did not "create" the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was created "from" him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e. original sin). According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the creatures of the world, one worships the True God. Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but instead seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is merely a consequence of ignorance. Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed. Antiquity and modernity stand cheek-by-jowl in Egypts chief Mediterranean seaport Located on the Mediterranean Sea coast, Alexandria Αλεξάνδρεια (in Arabic, الإسكندرية, transliterated al-ʼIskandariyyah) is the chief seaport in Egypt, and that countrys second largest city, and the capital of the Al Iskandariyah governate. ... This topic is considered to be an essential subject on Wikipedia. ... Gnosticism is a historical term for various mystical initiatory religions, sects and knowledge schools which were most active in the first few centuries of the common era, around the Mediterranean and extending into central Asia. ... In number and more generally in algebra, a ratio is the linear relationship between two quantities of the same unit. ... Ionia (Greek Ιωνία; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was an ancient region of southwestern coastal Anatolia (now in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea. ... A phenomenon (plural: phenomena) is an observable event, especially something special (literally something that can be seen from the Greek word phainomenon = observable). ... Thales Thales (in Greek: Θαλής) of Miletus (ca. ... Anaximander Anaximander (Greek: Αναξίμανδρος)(610 BC/609–c. ... Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn) (c. ... Aristotle, marble copy of bronze by Lysippos. ... For law within legal systems see law. ... Gnosticism is a historical term for various mystical initiatory religions, sects and knowledge schools which were most active in the first few centuries of the common era, around the Mediterranean and extending into central Asia. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... The term God (capitalized in English language as a proper noun) is often used to refer to a Supreme Being. ... This article is about sinfulness. ...

One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. (Lindsay, p. 16) Empedocles of Agrigentum Empedocles (c. ...

The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." (Hitchcock, p. 66) Later alchemists (if Plato and Aristotle can be called alchemists) extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.

Alchemy in the Roman Empire

The Romans adopted Greek alchemy and metaphysics, just as they adopted much of Greek knowledge and philosophy. By the end of the Roman empire the Greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of the Egyptians to create the cult of Hermeticism. (Lindsay) The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

However, the development of Christianity in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from Augustine (354-430 AD), an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire. In essence, he felt that reason and faith could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil: "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and science." (Augustine, p. 245) Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life, teachings, and actions of Jesus as recounted in the New Testament. ... St. ... The Roman Empire is not the Holy Roman Empire (843-1806). ... Reason is a term used in philosophy and other human sciences to refer to the higher cognitive faculties of the human mind. ... The word faith has various uses; its central meaning is similar to belief, trust or confidence, but unlike these terms, faith tends to imply a transpersonal rather than interpersonal relationship – with God or a higher power. ... Definition Experimental philosophy - a form of philosophy that relies on experiment and observation to determine the laws of nature or the properties or behaviour of things. ...

Augustinian ideas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned. Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly. An examination of the major themes in Medieval life. ...

Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of "hermetic" to mean "secretive".) (Lindsay, p. 155) It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed.

Alchemy in the Islamic world

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Middle East. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic translations. (Burckhardt p. 46) Islam (Arabic: ; ( (help· info)), submission (to the will of God)) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions, and the worlds second-largest religion. ...

The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated. Islamic alchemists such as al-Razi (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of distillation (the words alembic and alcohol are of Arabic origin), the muriatic, sulfuric, and nitric acids, soda, potash, and more. (From the Arabic names of the last two substances, al-natrun and al-qalīy, Latinized into Natrium and Kalium, come the modern symbols for sodium and potassium.) The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn) (c. ... Aristotle, marble copy of bronze by Lysippos. ... Rhazes-Treating a Patient (artist unknown) Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (born in Rayy, Iran, 864; died in Baghdad, Iraq, 930 AD) was a versatile Persian philosopher (hakim), who made fundamental and lasting contributions to the fields of medicine, chemistry (alchemy) and philosophy. ... Strathisla whisky distillery in Keith, Scotland Distillation is a method of separation of substances based on differences in their vapor pressures. ... An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by a tube. ... In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-kukhÅ«l الكحول = the spirit, the chemical.) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ... Arabic (; , less formally, ) is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... The chemical substance hydrochloric acid is the aqueous (water-based) solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas. ... Sulfuric acid (British English: sulphuric acid), H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ... R-phrases , S-phrases , , , , Flash point not applicable RTECS number QU5775000 Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Sodium carbonate or soda ash, Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. ... Potash Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) mixed with other potassium salts. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sodium, Na, 11 Chemical series alkali metals Group, Period, Block 1, 3, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 22. ... General Name, Symbol, Number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, Period, Block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 39. ... Aqua regia (Latin for royal water) is a highly corrosive, fuming yellow liquid, formed by a fresh mixture of concentrated nitric acid (otherwise known as aqua fortis) and concentrated hydrochloric acid, usually in the ratio of one to three. ...

Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Arabic جابر إبن حيان, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber). Jabir's ultimate goal was takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. (Burkhardt, p. 29) According to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. (Burckhardt, p. 29) By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. 15th century European portrait of Geber, Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence Jabir Ibn Hayyan , full name Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan Al-Azdi (أبو موسى جابر بن حيان الأزدي), born c. ... Takwin was a goal of certain Islamic alchemists, notably Jabir ibn Hayyan. ... The philosophers stone, in Latin lapis philosophorum, is a mythical substance that supposedly could turn inexpensive metals into gold and/or create an elixir that would make humans younger, thus delaying death. ... Numerology is the study of the purported mystical or esoteric relationship between numbers and the character or action of physical objects and living things. ...

It is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists (Edwardes pp. 33-59)(Burckhardt, p. 10-22), although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate. Likewise, Hindu learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known. Hinduism (Sanskrit/Hindi: ; also known as Sanātana Dharma - , and Vaidika Dharma - ) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the Vedas, and is generally regarded as one of the oldest religions still practised in the world. ...

Alchemy in Medieval Europe

The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone. By Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771.

Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac, who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294) Download high resolution version (678x870, 136 KB)The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph Wright of Derby. ... Download high resolution version (678x870, 136 KB)The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph Wright of Derby. ... Joseph Wright (September 3, 1734 - August 29, 1797), styled Wright of Derby, was an English landscape and portrait painter. ... 1771 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Gerbert of Aurillac, later known as pope Silvester II, (or Sylvester II), (ca. ... Gerbert of Aurillac, later known as pope Silvester II, (or Sylvester II), (ca. ... Adelard of Bath was a 12th century English scholar. ...

In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm (1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8) St. ... Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033 or 1034 – April 21, 1109), a widely influential medieval philosopher and theologian, held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109. ... Pierre Abélard (in English, Peter Abelard) or Abailard (1079 - April 21, 1142) was a French scholastic philosopher. ... Consciousness is a quality of the mind generally regarded to comprise such key features as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and ones environment. ...

Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5) Robert Grosseteste (c. ...

Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4, 355). This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of experimentation. Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352, Treviso, Italy) Albertus Magnus (1193? – November 15, 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a Dominican friar who became famous for his universal knowledge and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas [Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino] (c. ... Scientific method as envisaged by one of its early exponents, Sir Isaac Newton, is fundamental to the investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. ... The three methods for logical reasoning, deduction, induction, and abduction can be explained in the following way (taken from [1]): Given α, β, and the rule R1 : α ∴ β Deduction is using the rule and its preconditions to make a conclusion (α ∧ R1 ⇒ β). ... Reason is a term used in philosophy and other human sciences to refer to the higher cognitive faculties of the human mind. ... Theology is reasoned discourse concerning God (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογος, logos, word or reason). It can also refer to the study of other religious topics. ... Divine illumination, or Enlightenment requires a state of grace. ... From Latin ex- + -periri (akin to periculum attempt). ...

The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect." (Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general principles would never have discovered." (Hollister p. 294-5) Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwardes p. 37-8) Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Roger Bacon (c. ... Robert Boyle The Honourable Robert Boyle (January 25, 1627 - December 30, 1692) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ... Chemistry (derived from the Arabic word kimia, alchemy, where al is Arabic for the) is the science that deals with the properties of organic and inorganic substances and their interactions with other organic and inorganic substances. ... Galileo Galilei Galileo Galileii (Pisa, February 15, 1564 – Arcetri, January 8, 1642), was an Italian physicist, astronomer, and philosopher who is closely associated with the scientific revolution. ... Lunar astronomy: the large crater is Daedalus, photographed by the crew of Apollo 11 as they circled the Moon in 1969. ... A black hole concept drawing by NASA. Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), natural, and φύσις (physis), nature) is the science of the natural world dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. ... The Order of Friars Minor and other Franciscan movements are disciples of Saint Francis of Assisi. ... See also: List of optical topics Optics (appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ... Knowledge is information of which someone is aware. ... Reason is a term used in philosophy and other human sciences to refer to the higher cognitive faculties of the human mind. ... Look up Experience in Wiktionary, the free dictionary This article discusses the general concept of experience. ... For law within legal systems see law. ... Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of existing for a potentially infinite, or indeterminate length, of time. ... Longevity is defined as long life or the length of a persons life (life expectancy). ...

Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism. (Edwardes p. 24-7)

So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.) They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149) The soul, according to many religious and philosophical traditions, is a self aware ethereal substance particular to a unique living being. ... Jargon is a type of terminology which is used in conjunction with a specific activity, e. ... Observation is an activity of an intelligent living being, to sense and assimiliate the knowledge of a phenomenon in its framework of previous knowledge and ideas. ... Theory has a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on the context and their methodologies. ...

In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change. William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p. 335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. (Edwardes, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general. Hello, I am Sam, Sam I am. ... Oxford is a city and local government district in Oxfordshire, England, with a population of 134,248 (2001 census). ... Thomism is the philosophical school that followed in the legacy of St. ... Pope John XXII, born Jacques Duèze or dEuse (1249 – December 4, 1334), was the son of a shoemaker in Cahors. ... Illustration of the Black Death from the Toggenburg Bible (1411). ... An act of war - the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945, effectively ending World War II. The bombs over Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki immediately killed over 120,000 people. ... A famine is a phenomenon in which a large percentage of the population of a region or country are so undernourished that death by starvation becomes increasingly common. ...

Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.

Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181) Download high resolution version (800x691, 174 KB)The mysterious alchemical figures which Nicholas Flamel caused to be carved on his tomb. ... Download high resolution version (800x691, 174 KB)The mysterious alchemical figures which Nicholas Flamel caused to be carved on his tomb. ... This allegedly is a portrait of Nicholas Flamel. ... A tomb is a small building (or vault) for the remains of the dead, with walls, a roof, and (if it is to be used for more than one corpse) a door. ... The Holy Innocents by Giotto di Bondone. ... For the Harry Potter character, see Nicholas Flamel (Harry Potter). ... An archetype is an idealized model of a person, object, or concept from which similar instances are derived, copied, patterned, or emulated. ...

Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold (in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwardes pp. 50-75)(Norton pp lxiii-lxvii) The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... Transmutation is the conversion of one object into another. ... Mercury is a god, also known as the god of trade, profit and commerce. ... The ancient symbol of the pentagram is often used as a symbol for magic. ...

One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning spirits. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church. (Edwardes p.56-9)(Wilson p.23-9) Cornelius Agrippa, as portrayed in Libri tres de occulta philosophia Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (born of noble birth in Cologne September 14, 1486, died in Grenoble February 18, 1535) was a magician and occult writer, astrologer, and alchemist. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The word occult comes from Latin occultus (hidden), referring to the knowledge of the secret or knowledge of the hidden and often meaning knowledge of the supernatural, as opposed to knowledge of the visible or knowledge of the measurable, usually referred to as science. ...

Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance

European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment — would surely lead to that goal. By region Italian Renaissance Spanish Renaissance Northern Renaissance English Renaissance French Renaissance German Renaissance Polish Renaissance The Renaissance, also known as Il Rinascimento (in Italian), was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution, religious reform and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. ... A confidence trick, confidence game, or con for short, (also known as a scam) is an attempt to intentionally mislead a person or persons (known as the mark) usually with the goal of financial or other gain. ...

The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45) Paracelsus Paracelsus (November 11 or December 17, 1493 - September 24, 1541) was a famous alchemist, physician, astrologer, and general occultist. ...

Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.

"Alchemik Michał Sędziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73 x 130 cm, Museum of Arts in Łódź.

In England, the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold — may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan. Alchemist Sędziwój by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Alchemist Sędziwój by Jan Matejko This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Jan Matejko , self-portrait Jan Matejko, also Jan Mateyko (b. ... Łódź (pronunciation: ), the second-largest city (population 776,297 in 2004) of Poland, lies in the centre of the country. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location within the British Isles Official language English de facto Capital London de facto Largest city London Area – Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 km² Population – Total (mid-2004) – Total (2001 Census) – Density Ranked 1st UK... A sixteenth century portrait of John Dee, artist unknown. ... July 13 is the 194th day (195th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 171 days remaining. ... Events January 5 - Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, was drowned in the Limmat River in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church. ... An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + λόγος, logos, word) is... Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603 ) was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. ... Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Roger Bacon (c. ... Kabbala may refer to; Kabbala Village, in the Karnataka State of India Kabbalah, is a religious philosophical system claiming an insight into divine nature. ... Edward Kelley, nineteenth-century portrait Edward Kelley or Kelly, also known as Edward Talbot (August 1, 1555 - 1597) was a spirit medium who worked with John Dee in his magical investigations. ... The Annunciation - the Angel Gabriel announces to Mary that she will bear Jesus (El Greco, 1575) An angel is an ethereal being found in many religions, whose duties are to assist and serve God or the gods. ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 200. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Atomic mass 196. ...

Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a submarine. MichaÅ‚ SÄ™dziwój MichaÅ‚ SÄ™dziwój (Michael Sendivogius) (1566 - 1636) was a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... Carl Wilhelm Scheele Scheeles house with his pharmacy in Köping. ... Joseph Priestley is often credited for the discovery of oxygen. ... Saltpeter is variously: potassium nitrate (niter); or sodium nitrate (soda niter) ... There are no true drawings existent of Drebbels submarine. ...

Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe (December 14, 1546 – October 24, 1601), was a Danish nobleman astronomer as well as an astrologer and alchemist. ... Astronomy, which etymologically means law of the stars, (from Greek: αστρονομία = άστρον + νόμος) is a science involving the observation and explanation of events occurring outside Earth and its atmosphere. ... An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + λόγος, logos, word) is... Uraniborg was the astronomical/astrological observatory of Tycho Brahe; built circa 1576-1580 on Hven (also known as Ven or Hveen), an island in the Öresund; between Zealand and Scania. ...

The decline of Western alchemy

The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century.

Robert Boyle (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. Boyle's law) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. (Pilkington p.11) This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone. Robert Boyle The Honourable Robert Boyle (January 25, 1627 - December 30, 1692) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ... Image:Boyle. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 – May 8, 1794) was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics. ... John Dalton John Dalton (September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844) was a British chemist and physicist, born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland. ...

Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation (Harvey, 1616), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs (Koch and Pasteur, 19th century) or lack of natural nutrients and vitamins (Lind, Eijkman, Funk, et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies. William Harvey (1578–1657) was a medical doctor who is credited with first correctly describing, in exact detail, the properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart. ... Events October 25 — Dirk Hartog makes the second recorded landfall by a European on Australian soil, at an island off the Western Australian coast Pocahontas arrives in England War between Venice and Austria Collegium Musicum founded in Prague Nicolaus Copernicus De revolutionibus is placed on the Index of Forbidden Books... Robert Koch For the American lobbyist, see Bobby Koch. ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist. ... A Vitamin is an organic molecule required by a living organism in minute amounts for proper health. ... James Lind (1716 – 1794), born Edinburgh, Scottish Surgeon in the Royal Navy (1739-1748); physician to the Royal Naval Hospital at Haslar (1758-1783); founder of naval hygiene in the United Kingdom and promoter of the use of citrus fruits and fresh vegetables to prevent and cure scurvy. ... Christiaan Eijkman (August 11, 1858—November 5, 1930) was a Dutch physician and pathologist whose demonstration that beriberi is caused by poor diet led to the discovery of vitamins. ... Kazimierz Funk (February 23, 1884 - January 19, 1967), commonly anglicized as Casimir Funk, was a Polish biochemist, generally credited with the first formulation of the concept of Vitamins in 1912, which he called vital amines or vitamines. ...

Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections — but still incurably burdened by them. Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other esoteric disciplines such as astrology and Kabbalah: excluded from university curricula, shunned by its former patrons, ostracized by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of charlatanism and superstition. Etymology Esoteric is an adjective originating during Hellenic Greece under the domain of the Roman Empire; it comes from the Greek esôterikos, from esôtero, the comparative form of esô: within. It is a word meaning anything that is inner and occult, a latinate word meaning hidden (from which... Astrology (from Greek αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + English suffix, -ology, study or discipline, derived from Greek λόγος, logos, which has a variety of meanings in English generally related to systematic thought or speech) refers to any of several traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions (as seen from earth) of... Kabbalah (Hebrew קַבָּלָה reception, Standard Hebrew Qabbala, Tiberian Hebrew Qabbālāh; also written variously as Cabala, Cabalah, Cabbala, Cabbalah, Kabala, Kabalah, Kabbala, Qabala, Qabalah, Kaballah) is an interpretation (exegesis, hermeneutic) key, soul of the Torah (Hebrew Bible), or the religious mystical system of Judaism claiming an insight into divine nature. ... A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master, and doctor) in a variety of subjects. ... Damned knowledge, a term coined by Charles Fort (who collected and published accounts of many anomalous phenomena), is knowledge suppressed, discounted, or not recognized as real because it does not fit into the dominant paradigm of the time (or, sometimes, because it fits too well). ... A charlatan is a person practicing quackery or some similar confidence trick in order to obtain money or advantage by false pretenses. ... A superstition is an irrational or invalid belief about the relation between certain actions (often behaviors) and other actions that is not true, such as fear of the number 13. ...

These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in European intellectualism against the Romantic movement of the preceding century. Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand years, could disappear so easily from the universe of Western thought. This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Modern 'alchemy'

In modern times, progress has been made toward achieving the goals of alchemy using scientific, rather than alchemic, means. These developments may on occasion be called "alchemy" for rhetorical reasons.

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert nitrogen into oxygen. This process of bombarding the atomic nucleus with high energy particles is the principle behind modern particle accelerators, in which transmutations of elements are common. Indeed, in 1980, Glenn Seaborg transmuted lead into gold, though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created negated any possible financial benefit. Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, FRS (August 30, 1871 - October 19, 1937), called father of nuclear physics, pioneered the orbital theory of the atom notably in his discovery of rutherford scattering off the nucleus with his gold foil experiment. ... Artificial disintegration is the term coined by Ernest Rutherford for the process by which an atomic nucleus is broken down by bombarding it with high speed alpha particles, either from a particle accelerator, or a naturally decaying radioactive substance such as radium, as Rutherford originally used. ... A particle accelerator uses electric fields to propel charged particles to great energies. ... Glenn Theodore Seaborg (April 19, 1912 – February 25, 1999) was an American atomic scientist. ...

In 1964, George Ohsawa and Michio Kushi, based on the claims of Louis Kervran, reportedly successfully transmutated sodium into potassium, by use of an electric arc, and later of carbon and oxygen into iron. In 1994, R. Sundaresan and J. Bockris reported that they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between carbon rods immersed in water. However, none of these claims have been replicated by other scientists, and the idea is now thoroughly discredited. Michio Kushi (久司 道夫 Kushi Michio) born 1926 in Japan, helped to bring modern macrobiotics to the United States. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sodium, Na, 11 Chemical series alkali metals Group, Period, Block 1, 3, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 22. ... General Name, Symbol, Number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, Period, Block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 39. ... General Name, Symbol, Number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Atomic mass 12. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ...

As of 2005, a universal panacea remains elusive, though futurists such as Ray Kurzweil believe sufficiently advanced nanotechnology may prolong life indefinitely. Some say the third goal of alchemy has been fulfilled by IVF and the cloning of a human embryo, although these technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch. This article is about the art movement, futurism. ... Dr. Raymond Kurzweil (born February 12, 1948) is a pioneer in the fields of optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, speech recognition technology, and electronic musical keyboards. ... A mite next to a gear set produced using MEMS, the precursor to nanotechnology. ... In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a technique in which egg cells are fertilized outside the mothers body in cases where conception is difficult or impossible through normal intercourse. ... Cloning is the process of creating an identical copy of an original. ...

The aim of artificial intelligence research could be said to be creating a life from scratch, and those philosophically opposed to the possibility of AI have compared it with alchemy, such as Herbert and Stuart Dreyfus in their 1960 paper Alchemy and AI. Hondas intelligent humanoid robot Artificial intelligence (AI) is defined as intelligence exhibited by an artificial entity. ...

Alchemy in art and entertainment

References to alchemy in art and entertainment are far too numerous to list. Here we give only a few indicative samples. More titles can be found in the philosopher's stone article. The philosophers stone, in Latin lapis philosophorum, is a mythical substance that supposedly could turn inexpensive metals into gold and/or create an elixir that would make humans younger, thus delaying death. ...

Novels and plays

Many writers lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of satirical attacks. Two early and well-known examples are Literature is literally acquaintance with letters as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary (from the Latin littera meaning an individual written character (letter)). The term has generally come to identify a collection of texts, which in Western culture are mainly prose, both fiction and non-fiction... Satire is a literary technique of writing or art which exposes the follies of its subject (for example, individuals, organizations, or states) to ridicule, often as an intended means of provoking or preventing change. ...

• Geoffrey Chaucer, Canon's Yeoman's Tale (ca. 1380). The main character, an alchemist on the way to Canterbury, claims that he will "pave it all of silver and of gold".
• Ben Jonson, The Alchemist (ca 1610). In this five-act play, the characters set up an alchemy workshop to swindle people.

An Alchemical Laboratory, from The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry

In more recent works, alchemists are generally presented in a more romatic or mystic light, and often little distinction is made between alchemy, magic, and witchcraft: Chaucer: Illustration from Cassells History of England, circa 1902. ... The Canons Yeomans Tale is one of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. ... Canterbury is a cathedral city in the City of Canterbury district of Kent in South East England. ... Benjamin Jonson (June 11, 1572 – August 6, 1637) was an English Renaissance dramatist, poet and actor. ... for other works by this name, see the disambiguation page for this title The Alchemist is a play in five acts by Ben Jonson. ... Alchemical Laboratory - Project Gutenberg eText 14218 - http://www. ... Alchemical Laboratory - Project Gutenberg eText 14218 - http://www. ...

• Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (1818). Victor Frankenstein uses both alchemy and modern science to create Frankenstein's monster.
• Goethe, Faust, Part 2 (1832). Faust's servant Wagner uses alchemy to create a homunculus.
• Gabriel García Márquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967). An alchemist named Melquíades adds to the novel's surreal atmosphere.
• Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist (1988).
• J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (1997). Features Nicholas Flamel as a character.
• Robert Stanek, The Kingdoms and the Elves and the Reaches (2002). The characters practice alchemy and transmutation.
• Neal Stephenson, The Baroque Cycle (2003–2004). Features real and imaginary alchemists such as Isaac Newton, de Duillier, and Enoch Root.
• Martin Booth, Doctor Illuminatus: The Alchemist's Son (2003).
• Margaret Mahy, Alchemy (2004).
• John Fasman, The Geographer's Library, whose plot revolves around thirteen alchemical artifacts.
• Gregory Keyes, Age of Unreason. Features Isaac Newton and de Duillier.
• Cornelia Funke, Dragon Rider (2004). Twigleg the homonculus was created by an alchemist.

Mary Shelley Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley née Godwin (August 30, 1797–February 1, 1851) was an English writer who is, perhaps, equally-famously remembered as the wife of Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley and as the author of Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus. ... Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. ... Boris Karloff as Frankensteins monster, along with Elsa Lanchester, in Bride of Frankenstein Frankensteins monster (sometimes Frankensteins creature or the Frankenstein monster) is a creature first appearing in Mary Shelleys novel, Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (help· info) (IPA: ) (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German novelist, dramatist, poet, humanist, scientist, philosopher, and for ten years chief minister of state at Weimar. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Hartsoekers homunculus The concept of a homunculus (Latin for little man, sometimes spelled homonculus, plural homunculi) is often used to illustrate the functioning of a system. ... Gabriel García Márquez Gabriel José García Márquez (born March 6, 1928) is a Colombian novelist, journalist, publisher, and political activist. ... One Hundred Years of Solitude (Spanish title: Cien años de soledad) is a novel by Gabriel García Márquez. ... Paulo Coelho (born August 24, 1947) is a famous Brazilian lyricist and novelist. ... For similarly-named works, see The Alchemist (disambiguation) for this title The Alchemist is a book that was first published in Brazil in 1988 and is the most famous work of author Paulo Coelho. ... J. K. Rowling Joanne Jo Rowling, OBE (born 31 July 1965) is an English fiction writer who writes under the semi-pseudonym of J. K. Rowling. ... Cover of the International edition, distributed in the United Kingdom, Australia, India and Canada Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone is the first volume in a planned series of seven books written by British author J. K. Rowling, and featuring Harry Potter, a young wizard. ... This allegedly is a portrait of Nicholas Flamel. ... William Robert Stanek (born January 3, 1966) is an American author best known for his how-to books and his work as a columinst for PC Magazine and Dr. Dobbs Journal. ... The Kingdoms and the Elves of the Reaches is a fantasy series written by Robert Stanek originally as a childrens story in the tradition of a fairy tale. ... Neal Town Stephenson (b. ... The Baroque Cycle, a series of books written by Neal Stephenson, appeared in print in 2003 and 2004. ... Sir Isaac Newton, PRS, (4 January [O.S. 25 December 1642] 1643 – 31 March [O.S. 20 March] 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor and natural philosopher who is regarded by many as the most influential scientist in history. ... Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (1664-1753) was a Swiss mathematician and a Fellow of the Royal Society. ... Enoch Root (Enoch the Red) is a fictional character from Neal Stephensons novels The Baroque Cycle and Cryptonomicon. ... Martin Booth (September 7, 1944, Lancashire - February 12, 2004, Devon) was a British writer and poet. ... Margaret Mahy (born 21 March 1936) is a well-known New Zealand author of childrens and young adult books. ... Alchemy (2004) is a book by Margaret Mahy. ... Gregory Keyes is a writer of science fiction and fantasy. ... The Age of Unreason is a series of four books written by Gregory Keyes. ... Sir Isaac Newton, PRS, (4 January [O.S. 25 December 1642] 1643 – 31 March [O.S. 20 March] 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor and natural philosopher who is regarded by many as the most influential scientist in history. ... Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (1664-1753) was a Swiss mathematician and a Fellow of the Royal Society. ... Cornelia Caroline Funke is a German author. ... Dragon Rider is a novel by Cornelia Funke. ... Hartsoekers homunculus The concept of a homunculus (Latin for little man, sometimes spelled homonculus) is often used to illustrate the functioning of a system. ...

Comics, manga, and video games

• Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, Fantastic Four comics (ca. 1962–). Villain Diablo is an alchemist.
• Darklands PC game (1992). Alchemy features prominently throughout the game.
• Mike Mignola's Hellboy comics (1993–). The character Roger the Homunculus was created by alchemy.
• Nintendo's Golden Sun video game (2001). Alchemy is an evil force that threatens the world.
• Hiromu Arakawa, Fullmetal Alchemist (2002–). Many of the characters are alchemists.
• Nobuhiro Watsuki, Weapon Alchemist manga (2003?–).
• Kazuki Takahashi, Yu-Gi-Oh! GX anime (2004–). The character Daitokuji an homunculus of an alchemist.
• Nintendo's Final Fantasy Tactics Advance video game (2003). Has a playable class called Alchemist.

Stan Lee and his most famous co-creation, Spider-Man. ... The Fantastic Four, one of Kirbys most famous co-creations. ... The Fantastic Four is Marvel Comics flagship superhero team, created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and debuting in The Fantastic Four #1 (Nov. ... diablo Diablo (real name Esteban Corazon de Ablo) is a fictional character, a supervillain in the Marvel Comics universe who is an enemy of the Fantastic Four. ... Darklands is a role-playing game produced by MicroProse. ... Mike Mignola Mike Mignola (born in Berkeley, California on September 16, 1960) is an American comic book artist and writer, and he was also a cartoon artist. ... Hellboy is a comic book character, dubbed the Worlds Greatest Paranormal Investigator. He is a large red-skinned demon with a tail, horns broken off to stumps (which some fans mistook for goggles in early issues) and a big stone right hand (the Right Hand of Doom). ... Nintendo (Japanese: 任天堂, ニンテンドー Nintendō; NASDAQ: NTDOY, TYO: 7974 ) is an international company originally founded in Japan on November 6, 1889 by Fusajiro Yamauchi to produce handmade hanafuda cards, for use in a Japanese playing card game of the same name. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards and make it easier to understand, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Hiromu Arakawa (荒川弘, Arakawa Hiromu, born May 8, 1973) is a Japanese manga artist. ... This is the current Anime Collaboration of the Week. ... Self Portrait Nobuhiro Watsuki (和月伸宏 Watsuki Nobuhiro; born May 26, 1970) is a manga-ka, best known for his samurai-themed series Rurouni Kenshin. ... . Buso Renkin (武装錬金 Busō Renkin literally Weapon Alchemist) is a manga series made by Nobuhiro Watsuki. ... Kazuki Takahashi (高橋 和希 Takahashi Kazuki, born October 4, 1961 in Tokyo) is the creator of the manga Yu-Gi-Oh!, which led to the anime versions of it, Toeis Yu-Gi-Oh! and Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters (Internationally known as Yu-Gi-Oh!), as well as a spinoff manga... Yu-Gi-Oh! GX, known in Japan as Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters GX (遊☆戯☆王デュエル モンスターズGX Yūgiō Dyueru Monsutāzu GX) is an anime spinoff of the original Yu-Gi-Oh! franchise. ... Lyman Banner, known as Daitokuji (大徳寺) in Japan, is a fictional character in the anime series Yu-Gi-Oh! GX (Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters GX in Japan). ... Final Fantasy Tactics Advance is a strategy video game for Nintendos Game Boy Advance. ...

Music

• Tool (band), album Lateralus (2001).

Tool is a popular American rock band. ... Lateralus is Tools third and most recent studio album, released in May 2001 (see 2001 in music). ...

References

• ^a  Augustine (1963). The Confessions, New York: Mentor Books. Trans. Rex Warner.
• ^{a b c d e f g h}  Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul., Baltimore:Penguin. Trans. William Stoddart.
• Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books
• ^a  Debus, Allen G. and Multhauf, Robert P. (1966). Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century, Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California..
• ^{a b c d e f g}  Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History, New York: Stein and Day.
• Gettgins, Fred (1986). Encyclopedia of the Occult, London: Rider.
• ^a  Hitchcock, Ethan Allen (1857). Remarks Upon Alchemy and the Alchemists, Boston: Crosby, Nichols.
• ^{a b c d e f}  Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History, Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College. ISBN 0075571412. 6th ed.
• ^a b c  Lindsay, Jack (1970). The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt, London: Muller.. ISBN 0389010065.
• Marius (1976). On the Elements, Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520028562. Trans. Richard Dales.
• ^a  Norton, Thomas (Ed. John Reidy) (1975). Ordinal of Alchemy, London: Early English Text Society. ISBN 0197222749.
• ^a  Pilkington, Roger (1959). Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry, London: John Murray.
• Weaver, Jefferson Hane (1987). The World of Physics, New York: Simon & Schuster.
• ^a  Wilson, Colin (1971). The Occult: A History, New York: Random House. ISBN 0394465555.
• Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry, Lexington, Maryland: D. C. Heath and Co.. ISBN 0669167088. 2nd ed.
• Greenberg, Adele Droblas (2000). Chemical History Tour, Picturing Chemistry from Alchemy to Modern Molecular Science, Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0471354082.

Titus Burckhardt, a German Swiss, was born in Florence in 1908 and died in Lausanne in 1984. ...

See also

Other alchemical pages

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Alchemy

• Vulcan of the alchemists
• Philosopher's stone
• Hermeticism
• Astrology and alchemy
• Transmutation
• Duality
• The four humours
• Alkahest, arcanum, berith, elixir, quintessence
• Alembic
• Alchemical symbol
• Gold water

Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... The Wikimedia Commons (also called Commons or Wikicommons) is a repository of free content images, sound and other multimedia files. ... The Swiss physician/alchemist Paracelsus seems to have introduced the mythological figure of Vulcan as the patron deity of alchemy and as symbolic of the hermetic art. ... The philosophers stone, in Latin lapis philosophorum, is a mythical substance that supposedly could turn inexpensive metals into gold and/or create an elixir that would make humans younger, thus delaying death. ... Hermes Trismegistus depicted as Caucasian in a medieval rendering. ... Alchemy in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. ... Transmutation is the conversion of one object into another. ... The word duality has a variety of different meanings in different contexts: In mathematics, see duality (mathematics). ... The four humours were four fluids that were thought to permeate the body and influence its health. ... Alkahest (a pseudo-Arabic word believed to have been invented by Paracelsus) is a liquid, much sought after by the alchemists, having the power of dissolving gold and every other substance, which it was supposed would possess invaluable medicinal qualities. ... Look up arcanum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In demonology Berith is a Great Duke of Hell, powerful and terrible, and has twenty-six legions of demons under his command. ... Elixir, by Yousuf Karsh, 1938 Elixir has several meanings: In alchemy, an elixir was a substance believed to be able to change base metals into gold. ... The word quintessence is used in different fields: In the Game boy advance game called Fire Emblem, the word Quitessence is a substance that can heal bodily injuries and restore spiritual energy to summon dragons. ... An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by a tube. ... Alchemical symbols, originally devised as part of the protoscience of alchemy, were used to denote some elements and some compounds until the 18th century. ... Danziger Goldwasser (English translation: Gold water from Gdańsk, Literally: Danzigs gold water) is the registered tradename of a strong (38%) root and herbal liqueur that has been produced since the 16th century in Gdańsk, Poland. ...

Related and alternative philosophies

• Western mystery tradition
• Astrology
• Necromancy, magic,
• Esotericism, Rosicrucianism, Illuminati
• Taoism and the Five Elements
• Kayaku-Jutsu
• Acupuncture, moxibustion, ayurveda, homeopathy
• Anthroposophy
• Psychology and Carl Jung
• New Age

The term Western mystery tradition (also Western Esoteric tradition) refers to the collection of the mystical esoteric knowledge, such as Kabbalah, of the western world. ... Astrology (from Greek αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + English suffix, -ology, study or discipline, derived from Greek λόγος, logos, which has a variety of meanings in English generally related to systematic thought or speech) refers to any of several traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions (as seen from earth) of... Necromancy (Latin necromantia, Greek νεκρομαντία nekromantía) is the alleged divination by which a Necromancer uses a Spirit of Divination or an Operative Spirit to practice magic for them and thereby achieve a desired effect much more easily. ... The ancient symbol of the pentagram is often used as a symbol for magic. ... ... The Temple of the Rosy Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618 The Rosicrucians are a legendary and secretive order dating from the 15th or 17th century, generally associated with the symbol of the Rose Cross, which is also used in certain rituals of the Freemasons. ... The Illuminati is the name of many groups, modern and historical, real and fictitious, verified and alleged. ... For other uses of the words tao and dao, see Dao (disambiguation). ... The five elements usually refer to wood, fire, earth, metal, and water in East Asian philosophy. ... Kayakujutsu (literally the art of gunpowder in Japanese) is the use of firearms, gunpowder and explosives especially by Ninja. ... Acupuncture chart from the Ming dynasty. ... Moxibustion Moxibustion (Chinese: 灸; pinyin: jiŭ) is an oriental medicine therapy utilizing moxa, or mugwort herb. ... Ayurveda (आयुर्वेद Sanskrit: ayu—life; veda—knowledge of) or ayurvedic medicine is a comprehensive system of medicine, first described by Charaka around the beginning of the Common Era, and based on a holistic approach rooted in earlier Vedic culture. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Anthroposophy, also called spiritual science by its founder, Rudolf Steiner is an attempt to investigate and describe spiritual phenomena with the same precision and clarity with which natural science investigates and describes the physical world. ... Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos/-ology = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of the mind and behavior, both human and nonhuman. ... Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 – June 6, 1961) (IPA:) was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of Analytical Psychology. ... New Age describes a broad movement characterized by alternative approaches to traditional Western culture. ...

Scientific connections

• Chemistry
• Physics
• Scientific method
• Protoscience, Pseudoscience, and Anti-science
• Obsolete scientific theories
• Historicism

Chemistry (derived from the Arabic word kimia, alchemy, where al is Arabic for the) is the science that deals with the properties of organic and inorganic substances and their interactions with other organic and inorganic substances. ... A black hole concept drawing by NASA. Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), natural, and φύσις (physis), nature) is the science of the natural world dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. ... Scientific method as envisaged by one of its early exponents, Sir Isaac Newton, is fundamental to the investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. ... --203. ... Phrenology is seen today as a classic example of pseudoscience. ... Anti-science is a term applied to individuals who are claimed to oppose science or the scientific method. ... An obsolete scientific theory is a scientific theory that was once commonly accepted but (for whatever reason) is no longer considered the most complete description of reality by mainstream science; or a falsifiable theory which has been shown to be false. ... Historicism has developed different and divergent, though loosely related, meanings. ...

Substances of the alchemists

• gold • silver • lead • copper • zinc • mercury
• phosphorus • sulfur • arsenic • antimony
• vitriol • cinnabar • pyrites • orpiment • galena
• magnesia • lime • potash • natron • saltpetre • kohl
• ammonia • ammonium chloride • alcohol • camphor
• Acids: sulfuric •muriatic • nitric • acetic • formic • citric• tartaric
• aqua regia • gunpowder

General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Atomic mass 196. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Atomic mass 107. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic brown Atomic mass 63. ... General Name, Symbol, Number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Atomic mass 65. ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 200. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... General Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 3, p Appearance lemon yellow Atomic mass 32. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Atomic mass 74. ... General Name, Symbol, Number antimony, Sb, 51 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous grey Atomic mass 121. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into sulfuric acid. ... Cinnabar (German Zinnober), sometimes written cinnabarite, is a name applied to red mercury(II) sulfide (HgS), or native vermilion, the common ore of mercury. ... The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is iron disulfide, FeS2. ... Orpiment Orpiment prepared as a paint pigment Orpiment is a common monoclinic crystalline mineral Chemical Composition: As2S3, arsenic trisulfide Molecular Weight: 246. ... Galena is a lead ore. ... Magnesium oxide is a white solid mineral that occurs naturally as periclase and is a source of magnesium. ... Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as lime, quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. ... Potash Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) mixed with other potassium salts. ... Natron is a white, crystalline hygroscopic mineral salt, primarily a mixture of sodium bicarbonate (common baking soda) and sodium carbonate (soda ash) with small amounts of sodium chloride (table salt) and sodium sulfate. ... Saltpeter is variously: potassium nitrate (niter); or sodium nitrate (soda niter) ... Kohl (kol), which means brighten the eyes in Arabic, is a mixture of soot and other ingredients, used by Egyptian and other Asian women and, to a lesser extent, men to darken the eyelids. ... Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. ... Ammonium chloride or Sal Ammoniac (chemically ammonium chloride (NH4Cl); also nushadir salt, zalmiak, sal armagnac, sal armoniac, and salt armoniack) is, in its pure form, a clear white water-soluble crystalline salt with a biting taste. ... In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-kukhÅ«l الكحول = the spirit, the chemical.) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ... R-phrases 11-20/21/22-36/37/38 S-phrases 16-26-36 RTECS number EX1260000 (R) EX1250000 (S) Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Sulfuric acid (British English: sulphuric acid), H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ... The chemical substance hydrochloric acid is the aqueous (water-based) solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas. ... R-phrases , S-phrases , , , , Flash point not applicable RTECS number QU5775000 Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... Flash point 43 Â°C R-phrases , S-phrases , , , US Permissible exposure limit (PEL) 10 ppm Supplementary data page Structure & properties n, εr, etc. ... Formic acid (systematically called methanoic acid) is the simplest carboxylic acid. ... Citric acid is a weak organic acid found in citrus fruits. ... Tartaric acid is a white crystalline organic acid. ... Aqua regia (Latin for royal water) is a highly corrosive, fuming yellow liquid, formed by a fresh mixture of concentrated nitric acid (otherwise known as aqua fortis) and concentrated hydrochloric acid, usually in the ratio of one to three. ... Smokeless powder Gunpowder, whether black powder or smokeless powder, is a substance that burns very rapidly and is used as a propellant in firearms. ...

Other resources

• List of alchemists
• List of occultists

An alchemist was a person versed in the art of alchemy, an ancient branch of natural philosophy that eventually evolved into chemistry and pharmacology. ... List of notable occultists and mystics. ...

External links

• Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism: A pictorial and written archive of mythological, ritualistic, and symbolic images from all over the world and from all epochs of human history.
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Alchemy
• Skeptical Chemists: from alchemy to chemistry, tracing the contributions of Paracelsus
• The Alchemy Museum in Kutna Hora : World's First Museum Dedicated to Alchemy in All Its Aspects
• A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab : Analytical study of the archaeological remains of an alchemical laboratory
• The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry, 1913, from Project Gutenberg
• The Alchemy Website : A collection of many alchemical texts and other alchemical information
• Alchemical Taoism.com Eases study of the complex Healing Tao qi gong (chi kung) system. Essays by experienced students and instructors.

Project Gutenberg (often abbreviated as PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize, archive, and distribute cultural works. ...