Laurencia, a marine red alga from Hawaii.

Algae (sing. alga) are a large and diverse group of simple plant-like organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds. They are considered "plant-like" because of their photosynthetic ability, and "simple" because they lack the distinct organs of higher plants such as leaves and vascular tissue. Though the prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (commonly referred to as Blue-green algae) were traditionally included as "algae" in older textbooks, many modern sources regard this as outdated^[1][2] and restrict the term algae to eukaryotic organisms.^[3] All true algae therefore have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane and chloroplasts bound in one or more membranes.^[1] Algae constitute a paraphyletic and polyphyletic group:^[1] they do not represent a single evolutionary direction or line, but a level or grade of organization that may have developed several times in the early history of life on Earth. In computing, the algae programming language is an interpreted programming language for numerical analysis, a branch of mathematics. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (900x722, 561 KB) Close-up of a red alga (Laurencia), a marine seaweed from Hawaii. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (900x722, 561 KB) Close-up of a red alga (Laurencia), a marine seaweed from Hawaii. ... Possible classes Florideophyceae Bangiophyceae Cyanidiophyceae Red algae (Rhodophyta, pronounced /ˈrəʊdÉ™(ÊŠ)ËŒfʌɪtÉ™/) are a large group of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. ... A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). ... Multicellular organisms are those organisms containing more than one cell, and having differentiated cells that perform specialized functions. ... Ascophyllum nodosum exposed to the sun in Nova Scotia, Canada Dead Mans Fingers (Codium fragile) off Massachusetts coast For the band, see; Seaweed (band) For the rock musician, see; Seaweed (musician) Seaweeds are any of a large number of marine benthic algae. ... Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ... Leaves are an Icelandic five-piece alternative rock band who came to prominence in 2002 with their debut album, Breathe, drawing comparisons to groups such as Coldplay and Doves. ... Cross section of celery stalk, showing vascular bundles, which include both phloem and xylem. ... Prokaryotic bacteria cell structure Prokaryotes (IPA: //) are a group of organisms that lack a cell nucleus (= karyon), or any other membrane-bound organelles. ... Orders The taxonomy is currently under revision. ... Cyanobacteria (Greek: cyanos = blue) are a phylum of aquatic bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. ... Kingdoms Animalia - Animals Fungi Plantae - Plants Chromalveolata Protista Alternative phylogeny Unikonta Opisthokonta Metazoa Choanozoa Eumycota Amoebozoa Bikonta Apusozoa Cabozoa Rhizaria Excavata Corticata Archaeplastida Chromalveolata Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (IPA: ), organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures by internal membranes and a cytoskeleton. ... Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. ... Paraphyletic - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... In biology, a taxon is polyphyletic if it is descended from more than one root form (in Greek poly = many and phyletic = racial). ... Life on Earth  â€¢  â€¢  | Axis scale: millions of years ago. ...

Algae lack leaves, roots, and other organs that characterize higher plants. They are distinguished from protozoa in that they are photosynthetic. Many are photoautotrophic, although some groups contain members that are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have reduced or lost their photosynthetic apparatus. Look up foliage in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Root (disambiguation). ... This article is about the biological unit. ... Leishmania donovani, (a species of protozoan) in a bone marrow cell (in Greek proto = first and zoa = animals) are one-celled eukaryotes (that is, unicellular microbes whose cells have membrane-bound nuclei) that commonly show characteristics usually associated with animals, mobility and heterotrophy. ... An autotroph (in Greek eauton = self and trophe = nutrition) is an organism that produces its own cell mass and organic compounds from carbon dioxide as sole carbon source, using either light or chemical compounds as a source of energy. ... The term mixotrophic can describe organisms (usually algae or bacteria) capable of deriving metabolic energy both from photosynthesis and from external energy sources. ... Osmotrophy is the study of osmology, popularly referred to as ubeterology, and it focuses on the interaction between osmots and trophots. ... Myzocytosis is a method of feeding found in some heterotrophic organisms. ... Steps of a macrophage ingesting a pathogen: a. ... For other uses, see Species (disambiguation). ...

All algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the cyanobacteria, and so produce oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Orders The taxonomy is currently under revision. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Families Chromatiaceae Ectothiorhodospiraceae Halothiobacillaceae The purple sulfur bacteria are a group of Proteobacteria capable of photosynthesis, collectively referred to as purple bacteria. ... Green sulfur bacteria - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

[edit] Ecology

Algae are most prominent in bodies of water, but are also common in terrestrial environments. However, terrestrial algae are usually rather inconspicuous and far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones, because algae lack vascular tissues and other adaptations to live on land. Algae are also found in other situations, such as on snow and on exposed rocks in symbiosis with a fungus as lichen. The tropics are the geographic region of the Earth centered on the equator and limited in latitude by the two tropics: the Tropic of Cancer in the north and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. ... Cross section of celery stalk, showing vascular bundles, which include both phloem and xylem. ... Binomial name Chlamydomonas nivalis (Bauer) Wille Watermelon snow is snow that is reddish or pink in color, with the slight scent of a fresh watermelon. ... For other uses, see Symbiosis (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Lichen (disambiguation). ...

The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column — called phytoplankton — provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (so-called algal blooms) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, however some have been recorded to a depth of 300 m.^[4]Some are used as human food or harvested for useful substances such as agar, carrageenan, or fertilizer. Diagrams of some typical phytoplankton Phytoplankton are the autotrophic component of plankton. ... Food chains, food webs and/or food networks describe the feeding relationships between species to another within an ecosystem. ... Algal blooms can present problems for ecosystems and human society An algal bloom or marine bloom or water bloom is a rapid increase in the population of algae in an aquatic system. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Carrageenans or carrageenins (pronounced ) are a family of linear sulphated polysaccharides extracted from red seaweeds. ...

[edit] Study of algae

The lineage of algae according to Thomas Cavallier-Smith. The three supergroups Archaeplastida, Chromalveolata and Cabozoa of eukaryotic algae are denoted to reflect the table below. Endosymbiotic events are noted by dotted lines.

The study of marine and freshwater algae is called phycology or algology. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (540x619, 7 KB) Kupirijo This is needed to explain the lineage of algae. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (540x619, 7 KB) Kupirijo This is needed to explain the lineage of algae. ... The Archaeplastida are a major line of eukaryotes, comprising the land plants, green and red algae, and a small group called the glaucophytes. ... The chromalveolates (Chromalveolata) are a hypothetical grouping of eukaryotes, comprising the Chromista and alveolates, as suggested by Tom Cavalier-Smith. ... A Bikont is a eukaryotic cell with two flagella. ... Phycology (or algology) (from Greek: φύκος, phykos, seaweed; and λόγος, logos, knowledge), a subdiscipline of botany, is the scientific study of algae. ...

The US Algal Collection is represented by almost 300,000 accessioned and inventoried herbarium specimens.[2]

[edit] Classification

While Cyanobacteria have been traditionally included among the algae, referred to as the Cyanophytes or blue-green algae, recent works on algae usually exclude them due to large differences such as the lack of membrane-bound organelles, the presence of a single circular chromosome, the presence of peptidoglycan in the cell walls, and ribosomes different in size and content from eukaryotes ^[5][6]. Rather than in chloroplasts, they conduct photosynthesis on specialized infolded cytoplasmic membranes called thylakoid membranes. Therefore, they differ significantly from the algae despite occupying similar ecological niches. Orders The taxonomy is currently under revision. ... A scheme of a condensed (metaphase) chromosome. ... Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of eubacteria. ... Introduction A thylakoid is a phospholipid bilayer membrane internal to chloroplasts. ...

By modern definitions algae are eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA and are similar in structure to cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. The table below lists the three major groups of algae and their lineage relationship is shown in the figure on the left. Note many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost them entirely. Kingdoms Eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells, in which the genetic material is organized into membrane-bound nuclei. ... Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae which conduct photosynthesis. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... The endosymbiotic theory concerns the origins of mitochondria and plastids (e. ...

It was W.H.Harvey (1811 — 1866) who first divided the algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions were: red algae (Rhodophyta), brown algae (Heteromontophyta), green algae (Chlorophyta) and Diatomaceae (Dixon, 1973 p.232).^[7] William Henry Harvey (1852) William Henry Harvey (February 5, 1811–May 15, 1866) was an Irish botanist who specialised in algae. ...

[edit] Forms of algae

Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species, are A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). ... Flagellata from Ernst Haeckels Artforms of Nature, 1904 Parasitic excavate (Giardia lamblia) Green alga (Chlamydomonas) Flagellates are cells with one or more whip-like organelles called flagella. ... Amoeba (Chaos diffluens) Foraminiferan (Ammonia tepida) Heliozoan (Actinophrys sol) Amoeboids are cells that move or feed by means of temporary projections, called pseudopods (false feet). ... A life cycle is a period involving one generation of an organism through means of reproduction, whether through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction. ...

• Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells
• Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage
• Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls
• Palmelloid: non-motile cells embedded in mucilage
• Filamentous: a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching
• Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues

In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae [3]—some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)^[8]—the red algae [4], and the green algae [5]. The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups. Mucilage is a thick gluey substance, often produced by plants. ... Thallus is an undifferentiated vegetative tissue (without specialization of function) of some non-mobile organisms, which were previously known as the thallophytes. ... The Heterokontophyta (Phaeophyta or brown algae, singular: brown alga) is a large group of mostly marine multicellular algae, including many seaweeds of colder Northern Hemisphere waters. ... Families Alariaceae Chordaceae Laminariaceae Lessoniaceae Phyllariaceae Pseudochordaceae Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. ... Possible classes Florideophyceae Bangiophyceae Cyanidiophyceae Red algae (Rhodophyta, pronounced /ˈrəʊdÉ™(ÊŠ)ËŒfʌɪtÉ™/) are a large group of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. ... Divisions Chlorophyta Charophyta Streptophytina (Subdivision) The green algae are the large group of algae from which the embryophytes (higher plants) emerged. ... Genera Chara Lamprothamnium Nitella Tolypella The Charales are an order of green algae, and are believed to be the closest relatives of the embryophyte plants. ... Classes Mesostigmatophyceae Chlorokybophyceae Klebsormidiophyceae Zygnemophyceae    Zygnematales    Desmidiales Charophyceae    Coleochaetales    Charales The Charophyta are a division of green algae, including the closest relatives of the embryophyte plants. ... Divisions Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Marchantiophyta - liverworts Anthocerotophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adders-tongues Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering plants The embryophytes are the most familiar...

The first plants on earth evolved from shallow freshwater algae much like Chara some 400 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably heterotrichous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Algae and symbioses

Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples include For other uses, see Symbiosis (disambiguation). ... Common Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris) in their Magnificent sea anemone (Heteractis magnifica) home. ...

• lichens: a fungus is the host, usually with a green alga or a cyanobacterium as its symbiont. Both fungal and algal species found in lichens are capable of living independently, although habitat requirements may be greatly different from those of the lichen pair.
• corals: algae known as zooxanthellae are symbionts with corals. Notable amongst these is the dinoflagellate Symbiodinium, found in many hard corals. The loss of Symbiodinium, or other zooxanthellae, from the host is known as coral bleaching.
• sponges: green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponge (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.^[9]

For other uses, see Lichen (disambiguation). ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... Zooxanthellae are golden-brown intracellular endosymbionts of various marine animals and protozoa, especially anthozoans. ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... Warm pink and yellow host coral organism due to stress. ... Classes Calcarea Hexactinellida Demospongiae The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus pore and ferre to bear) are animals of the phylum Porifera. ... Binomial name Pallas, 1766 Halichondria panicea, commonly known as the breadcrumb sponge, is a species of marine demosponge belonging to the family Halichondriidae. ...

[edit] Life-cycle

Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal Phyla, have life-cycles which show tremendous variation with considerable complexity. In general there is an asexual phase where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction is advantageous in that it permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Sexual reproduction allows more variation but is more costly because of the waste of gametes that fail to mate, among other things. Often there is no strict alternation between the sporophyte and gametophyte phases and also because there is often an asexual phase, which could include the fragmentation of the thallus.^[8][10][6] Red algae Classes Florideophyceae Bangiophyceae Cyanidiophyceae The red algae are a large group of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. ... Classes[1] Bryopsidophyceae Chlorophyceae Pedinophyceae Pleurastrophyceae Prasinophyceae Trebouxiophyceae Ulvophyceae Chlorophyta, a division of green algae, includes about 8000 species[2][1] of mostly aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. ... Typical classes Colored groups Chrysophyceae (golden algae) Synurophyceae Actinochrysophyceae (axodines) Pelagophyceae Phaeothamniophyceae Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) Raphidophyceae Eustigmatophyceae Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) Phaeophyceae (brown algae) Colorless groups Oomycetes (water moulds) Hypochytridiomycetes Bicosoecea Labyrinthulomycetes (slime nets) Opalinea Proteromonadea The heterokonts or stramenopiles are a major line of eukaryotes. ... For other uses, see phyla. ... Diploid (meaning double in Greek) cells have two copies (homologs) of each chromosome (both sex- and non-sex determining chromosomes), usually one from the mother and one from the father. ... Haploid (meaning simple in Greek) cells have only one copy of each chromosome. ... Gametes (in Greek: γαμέτες) —also known as sex cells, germ cells, or spores—are the specialized cells that come together during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually. ...

[edit] See also

Conceptacle In phycology, conceptacles are specialised cavities of seaweeds that contain the reproductive organs. ...

[edit] Numbers and distribution

In the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK, freshwater and marine, about 650 of these are seaweeds. Another checklist of freshwater algae reported only about 5000 species. It seems therefore that the 20,000 is an overestimate or an error (John, 2002 p.1).^[11]

The Smithsonian collection of algae has over 300,000 specimens. ^[12]

World-wide it is thought that there are over 5,000 species of red algae, 1,500 — 2,000 of brown algae and 8,000 of green algae. In Australia it is estimated that there are over 1,300 species of red algae, 350 species of brown algae and approximately 2,000 species of green algae totalling 3,650 species of algae in Australia.^[13]

Around 400 species appear to be an average figure for the coastline of South African west coast.^[14] A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...

669 marine species have been described from California (U.S.A.).^[15]

642 entities are listed in the check-list of Britain and Ireland (Hardy and Guiry, 2006).^[16]

[edit] Distribution

No publication has been found which attempts to discuss the general distribution of algae in the seas world-wide. However, notes and comments have been made by some authors. The floristic discontinuities may appear to determined by geographical features such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. However, the distances between Norway, the Faroes and Iceland do not show great changes in distribution.^[4]

There has been dispersal in some species by ships, water currents and the like; further, some algae can quickly become entangled and make drifting mats.^[17] Two red species have been introduced from the Pacific to Europe and the Mediterranean: Bonnemaisonia hamifera Hariot and Asparagopsis armata Harvey,^[18] A. armata is a native of Australia.^[4]Colpomenia peregrina is a native of the Pacific but has also invaded Europe. For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... Colpomenia peregrina is a seaweed (alga) not native to the British Isles but recorded in Ireland since 1934. ...

[edit] Britain and Ireland

• Hardy, F.G. and Guiry, M.D. 2006. A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland. British Phycological Society, London. ISBN 3 906166 35 X
• Cullinane, J.P. 1973. Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland. The Cork University Press, University College Cork.

[edit] Northumberland and Durham (England)

• Hardy, F.G. and Aspinall, R.J. 1988. An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham. Northumberland Biological Records Centre. The Hancock Museum. The University Newcastle upon Tyne. Special publication: 3. ISBN 0 9509680 5 6

[edit] Northern Ireland

• Morton, O. 1994. Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Ulster Museum, Belfast. ISBN 0 900761 28 8

[edit] Ireland: County Donegal

• Morton, O. The marine macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland. Bull. Ir. biogeog. Soc. 27:3 - 164.

[edit] Isle of Man

• Knight, M. and Park, M.W. 1931. Manx algae. An algal survey of the south end of the Isle of Man. L.M.B.C. Mem. Typ. Br. Mar. Pl. 390: 1 - 155.

[edit] Arctic

• Kjellman, F.R. 1883. The algae of the Arctic Sea. K. sevenka. VetenskAkad. Handl. 20: 1 - 350.

[edit] Greenland

• Lund, S. 1959. The Marine Algae of East Greenland. I. Taxonomical part. Meddr. Grønland 156: 1 - 247.

[edit] Faroe Islands

• Borgesen, F. 1903. Marine Algae, pp.339 - 532. In, Warming, E. (Ed.), Botany of the Faröes Based Upon Danish Investigations. Part II. Copenhagen. [reprint 1970]

[edit] Atlantic(east coast)/Europe

• Cabioc'h,J., Floc'h,J-Y., Le Toquin, A., Boudouresque, C-F., Meinesz, A. and Verlaque, M. 1992. Guide des algues des mers d'Europe. Delachaux et Niestlé, Switzerland.
• Gayral, P. 1958 Algues de la Côte Atlantique Marocaine. Rabat.
• Gayral, P. 1966. Algues des Côtes Françaises. Paris.

[edit] Canary Islands.

• Borgesen,F. 1925. Marine algae from the Canary Islands, especially from Tenerife and Gran Canaria. I. Chlorophyceae. Biol. Meddr 5: 1 - 113.

• Borgesen,F. 1926. Marine algae from the Canary Islands especially from Tenerife and Gran Canaria. II. Phaeophyceae. Biol. Meddr 6: 1 - 112.

• Borgesen,F. 1927. Marine algae from the Canary Islands. III. Rhodophyceae. Part I, Bangiales and Nemalionales. Biol. Meddr 6: 1 - 97.

• Borgesen,F. 1929. Marine algae from the Canary Islands. III Rhodophyceae. Part II. Cryptonemiales, Gigartinales and Rhodymeniales. Biol. Meddr 8: 1 - 97.

• Borgesen,F. 1930. Marine algae from the Canary Islands. III Rhodophyceae. Part II. Cryptonemiales, Gigartinales and Rhodymeniales. Biol. Meddr 9: 1 - 159.

[edit] North America

• Taylor, W.R. 1957. Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

• Abbott, I.A. and Hollenberg, G.J. 1976. Marine Algae of California. Stanford University Press, California.

• Wehr, J.D. and Sheath, R.G. 2003. Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification. Academic Press, USA.

[edit] South Africa

• Stegenga, H. Bolton, J.J. and Anderson, R.J. 1997. Seaweeds of the South African West Coast. Bolus Herbarium Number 18, Publication jointly financed by the Fourcade Bequest and the Research Committee of the University of Cape Town and the Foundation for Research Development.

[edit] New Zealand

• Lindauer, V.W., Chapman, V.J. and Aiken, M. 1961. The Marine Algae of New Zealand. Part II. Phaeophyta. Nova Hedwigia 3: 129 - 350.
• Chapman, V.J. 1969. The Marine Algae of New Zealand. Part III issues 1. Lehre: J.Cramer, 1 - 113.
• Chapman, V.J. and Dromgoole, F.I. 1970. The Marine Algae of New Zealand. Part III issues 2. Lehre: J.Cramer, 115 - 154.
• Chapman, V.J. and Parkinson, P.G. 1974 The Marine Algae of New Zealand. Part III issues 3. Lehre: J.Cramer,155 - 278.
• Chapman, V.J. 1979 The Marine Algae of New Zealand. Part III issues 4. Lehre: J.Cramer, 279 - 420.

[edit] Uses of algae

Seaweed is used as a fertilizer

Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2576x1932, 1971 KB) Picture taken by myself in Koksijde, Belgium august 2005 File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Algae Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2576x1932, 1971 KB) Picture taken by myself in Koksijde, Belgium august 2005 File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Algae Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added... Ascophyllum nodosum exposed to the sun in Nova Scotia, Canada Dead Mans Fingers (Codium fragile) off Massachusetts coast For the band, see; Seaweed (band) For the rock musician, see; Seaweed (musician) Seaweeds are any of a large number of marine benthic algae. ...

[edit] Fertilizer

For centuries seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; Orwell writing in the 16th Century referring to drift weed in South Wales: "This kind of ore they often gather and lay in heaps where it heats and rots, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast it on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley" and "After spring tides or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse brackets, and carry the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass" (Chapman p.35).^[19]

Algae are used by humans in many ways. They are used as fertilizers, soil conditioners and are a source of livestock feed.^[8] Because many species are aquatic and microscopic, they are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. An open pond Spirulina farm Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. ... Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi Aquaculture is the cultivation of aquatic organisms. ...

Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner, it is dredged from the sea floor and crushed to form a powder.^[8] It is still harvested around the coasts of Brittany in France and off Falmouth, Cornwall (also extensively in western Ireland) and is a popular fertilizer in these days of organic gardening investigated Falmouth maerl and found that L. corallioides predominated down to 6 m and P. calcareum from 6-10 m (Blunden et al., 1981).^[20][21] Maerl Maerl is a collective name for two or three species of red algae in the Corallinacease. ... Historical province of Brittany, showing the main areas with their name in Breton language The traditional flag of Brittany (the Gwenn-ha-du), formerly a Breton nationalist symbol but today used as a general civic flag in the region. ... Falmouth (Cornish: Aberfal) is a seaport on the River Fal on the south coast of Cornwall, England, UK. It is both a town and a civil parish. ...

Chemical analysis of maerl showed that it contained 32.1% CaCO₃ and 3.1% MgCO₃ (dry weight).

[edit] Energy source

Main article: algaculture

• Algae can be used to make biodiesel (see algaculture), bioethanol and biobutanol and by some estimates can produce vastly superior amounts of vegetable oil, compared to terrestrial crops grown for the same purpose.
• Algae can be grown to produce biohydrogen. In 1939 a German researcher named Hans Gaffron, while working at the University of Chicago, observed that the algae he was studying, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a green-alga), would sometimes switch from the production of oxygen to the production of hydrogen.[7] Gaffron never discovered the cause for this change and for many years other scientists failed to repeat his findings. In the late 1990s professor Anastasios Melis, a researcher at the University of California at Berkeley, discovered that if the algae culture medium is deprived of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen (normal photosynthesis), to the production of hydrogen. He found that the enzyme responsible for this reaction is hydrogenase, but that the hydrogenase lost this function in the presence of oxygen. Melis found that depleting the amount of sulfur available to the algae interrupted its internal oxygen flow, allowing the hydrogenase an environment in which it can react, causing the algae to produce hydrogen. [8] Chlamydomonas moeweesi is also a good strain for the production of hydrogen.
• Algae can be grown to produce biomass, which can be burned to produce heat and electricity. [9]

An open pond Spirulina farm Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. ... This article is about transesterified lipids. ... An open pond Spirulina farm Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Butanol (butyl alcohol) is a higher alcohol with a 4 carbon atom structure and a general formula of C4H10O. There are 4 different isomeric structures for butanol (refer to box). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with cooking oil. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... Binomial name Chlamydomonas reinhardtii P.A.Dang. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... A hydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyses the reversible oxidation of molecular hydrogen (H2). ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ...

[edit] Pollution control

• Algae are used in wastewater treatment facilities, reducing the need for greater amounts of toxic chemicals than are already used.
• Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae itself can be used as fertilizer.
• Algae Bioreactors are used by some powerplants to reduce CO₂ emissions. [10] The CO₂ can be pumped into a pond, or some kind of tank, on which the algae feed. Alternatively, the bioreactor can be installed directly on top of a smokestack. This technology has been pioneered by Massachusetts-based GreenFuelTechnologies.[11]

Fertilizers are chemicals given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil or by foliar spraying. ... A promising branch of bio-engineering is the development of Algae Bioreactors. ... The word emission generally means sending something out. ...

[edit] Stabilizing substances

Chondrus crispus, (probably confused with Mastocarpus stellatus, common name: Irish moss), is also used as "carrageen". The name carrageenan comes from the Irish Gaelic for Chondrus crispus. It is an excellent stabiliser in milk products - it reacts with the milk protein caesin, other products include: petfoods, toothpaste, ice-creams and lotions etc.^[14][22] Alginates in creams and lotions are absorbable through the skin.^[23] Binomial name Chondrus crispus Stackhouse Irish moss, or carrageen moss (Irish carraigín, moss of the rock) is a species of red algae (Chondrus crispus) which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. ... Mastocarpus stellatus, also called Clúimhín Chait, Carragheen, or Carrageen Moss, is closely related to Irish Moss, or Chondrus crispus. ... Binomial name Chondrus crispus Stackhouse Irish moss, or carrageen moss (Irish carraigín, moss of the rock) is a species of red algae (Chondrus crispus) which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. ...

[edit] Nutrition

Seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia; They are excellent sources of many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin and C. They are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium and calcium.^[24] For the similarly spelled nucleic acid, see Thymine Thiamine or thiamin, also known as vitamin B1, is one of the B vitamins. ... Riboflavin (E101), also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in animals. ... Pyridoxine Pyridoxal phosphate Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... This article is about the nutrient. ... For other uses, see Iodine (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, period, block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 39. ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ...

Algae is commercially cultivated as a nutritional supplement. One of the most popular microalgal species is Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis), which is a Cyanobacteria (known as blue-green algae), and has been hailed by some as a superfood.[12] Other algal species cultivated for their nutritional value include; Chlorella (a green algae), and Dunaliella (Dunaliella salina), which is high in beta-carotene and is used in vitamin C supplements. Species About 35. ... Orders The taxonomy is currently under revision. ... Species Chlorella vulgaris pyrenoidosa Chlorella pyrenoidosa Chlorella is a genus of single-celled green algae, belonging to the phylum Chlorophyta. ... Species D. salina In taxonomy, Dunaliella is a genus of algae, specifically of the Dunaliellaceae. ... Beta-carotene is a form of carotene with β-rings at both ends. ...

In China at least 70 species of algae are eaten as is the Chinese "vegetable" known as fat choy (which is actually a cyanobacterium). Roughly 20 species of algae are used in everyday cooking in Japan.^[24] Fat choy (Nostic flagelliforme), also known as black moss or hair moss, is a cyanobacterium (a type of fresh water algae) that is used as a vegetable in Chinese cuisine. ... Cyanobacteria (Greek: cyanos = blue) are a phylum of aquatic bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. ...

Certain species are edible; the best known, especially in Ireland is Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) O. Kuntze (Rhodymenia palmata (Linnaeus) Kuntze, common name: dulse).[13] This is a red alga which is dried and may be bought in the shops in Ireland. It is eaten raw, fresh or dried, or cooked like spinach. Similarly, Durvillaea Antarctica [14] is eaten in Chile, common name: cochayuyo. [15] Binomial name (Linnaeus) Kuntze, 1891 Palmaria palmata (L.) Kuntze, also called Dulse, dillisk, dilsk or creathnach, is a red algae (Rhodophyta) previously referred to as Rhodymenia palmata (Linnaeus) Greville. ... Binomial name Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) Kuntze, 1891 Dulse (Palmaria palmata (L.) Kuntze), also called dillisk, dilsk, dulse or creathnach, is a red alga (Rhodophyta) that grows on the northern coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. ...

Porphyra (common name: purple laver), is also collected and used in a variety of ways (e.g. "laver bread" in the British Isles). In Ireland it is collected and made into a jelly by stewing or boiling. Preparation also involves frying with fat or converting to a pinkish jelly by heating the fronds in a saucepan with a little water and beating with a fork. It is also collected and used by people parts of Asia, specifically China, Korea (gim and Japan (nori) and along most of the coast from California to British Columbia. The Hawaiians and the Maoris of New Zealand also use it. Porphyra is a genus of red algae. ... Laver is an edible seaweed that has high content of mineral salts, particularly iodine and iron. ... For other uses, see Nori (disambiguation). ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Motto: Splendor sine occasu (Latin: Splendour without diminishment) Capital Victoria Largest city Vancouver Official languages English (de facto) Government Lieutenant-Governor Steven Point Premier Gordon Campbell (BC Liberal) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament House seats 36 Senate seats 6 Confederation July 20, 1871 (6th province) Area  Ranked 5th Total 944...

One particular use is in "instant" puddings, sauces and creams. Ulva lactuca (common name: sea lettuce), is used locally in Scotland where it is added to soups or used in salads. Alaria esculenta (common name: badderlocks or dabberlocks), is used either fresh or cooked, in Greenland, Iceland, Scotland and Ireland. Binomial name Alaria esculenta Alaria esculenta (Linnaeus) Greville. ... This article is about the country. ...

The oil from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Arachidonic acid (a polyunsaturated fatty acid), is very high in Parietochloris incisa, (a green alga) where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool (Bigogno C et al. Phytochemistry 2002, 60, 497). [16] [17] Arachidonic acid (AA) is an omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6). ...

It is a known fact that fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid, commonly known as DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid, or EPA; but The Martek Biosciences Corporation who discovered the source of DHA to be from algae manufactures DHA from algae, which is where fish get their DHA, explains J. Casey Lippmeier, Martek's senior scientist.

The algae are eaten by smaller marine life such as copepods, "and those are eaten by slightly larger fish," says Lippmeier. The DHA gets passed along the food chain, all the way up to the biggest fish, but the original source is the algae.

You can refer to the following npr.org link for an article on algae and omega-3 fatty acids; http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852.

[edit] Other uses

There are also commercial uses of algae as agar.^[22]

The natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring agents.[18] Many of the paper products used today are not recyclable because of the chemical inks that they use, paper recyclers have found that inks made from algae are much easier to break down. There is also much interest in the food industry into replacing the coloring agents that are currently used with coloring derived from algal pigments.Algea can be used to make pharmaceuticals^[25]Sewage can be treated with algae as well^[26] Some Cosmetics can come from microalgae as well. In