Death cap
Conservation status
Secure
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Fungi Division: Basidiomycota Class: Homobasidiomycetes Subclass: Hymenomycetes Order: Agaricales Family: Amanitaceae Genus: Amanita Species: A. phalloides
Binomial name
Amanita phalloides (Vaill. ex Fr.) Link

Amanita phalloides mycological characteristics:   gills on hymenium     cap is convex or flat Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1200x1600, 452 KB) Summary Amanita phalloides. ... The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species continuing to survive either in the present day or the future. ... Scientific classification or biological classification is a method by which biologists group and categorize species of organisms. ... Subkingdom/Phyla Chytridiomycota Blastocladiomycota Neocallimastigomycota Glomeromycota Zygomycota Dikarya (inc. ... Classes Subdivision Teliomycotina    Urediniomycetes Subdivision Ustilaginomycotina    Ustilaginomycetes Subdivision Hymenomycotina    Homobasidiomycetes- mushrooms    Heterobasidiomycetes- jelly fungi The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club-shaped structure called a basidium. ... former Orders Subclass Homobasidiomycetidae    Agaricales    Boletales    Cantharellales    Corticiales    Ganodermatales    Gomphales    Hericiales    Hydnales    Hymenochaetales    Polyporales (Aphyllophorales)    Poriales    Russulales    Schizophyllales    Stereales    Thelephorales Subclass Gasteromycetidae    Lycoperdales    Nidulariales    Phallales    Sclerodermatales    Tulostomatales The Class Homobasidiomycetes is a taxonomic division in the Subdivision Hymenomycotina of the Division Basidiomycota (in the Kingdom Fungi). ... Hymenomycete are a type of fungi. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... [[{{{diversity_link}}}|Diversity]] {{{diversity}}} Binomial name {{{binomial}}} Trinomial name {{{trinomial}}} Type Species {{{type_species}}} Genera Amanita Limacella Torrendia [[Image:{{{range_map}}}|{{{range_map_width}}}|]] Synonyms {{{synonyms}}} Amanitaceae is a family of Fungi or Mushrooms. ... The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics and contains some of the most toxic known mushrooms, found worldwide. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Sébastien Vaillant (May 26, 1669 - May 20, 1722) was a French botanist. ... Drawn image of Elias Magnus Fries Elias Magnus Fries (August 15, 1794 – February 8, 1878) was a Swedish botanist born at Femsjö in Smalandia. ... Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (February 2, 1767 - January 1, 1850) was a German naturalist and botanist. ... Image File history File links Gills_icon. ... Classes Homobasidiomycetes - mushrooms Heterobasidiomycetes - jelly fungi The Subdivision Hymenomycotina (Hymenomycetes) is one of three taxa of the fungal Division Basidiomycota (fungi bearing spores on basidia). ... Image File history File links Convex_cap_icon. ... Image File history File links Flat_cap_icon. ... The cap of a fungal fruiting body. ... The cap of a fungal fruiting body. ...   hymenium is free Image File history File links Free_gills_icon2. ... Classes Homobasidiomycetes - mushrooms Heterobasidiomycetes - jelly fungi The Subdivision Hymenomycotina (Hymenomycetes) is one of three taxa of the fungal Division Basidiomycota (fungi bearing spores on basidia). ...   stipe has a ring and volva Image File history File links Ring_and_volva_stipe_icon. ... Diagram of a basidiomycete stipe with a annulus and vulva In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. ...   spore print is white Image File history File links White_spore_print_icon. ... Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print. ...   ecology is mycorrhizal Image File history File links Mycorrhizal_ecology_icon. ... A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural form mycorrhizae meaning fungus roots) is a distinct type of root symbiosis in which individual hyphae extending from the mycelium of a fungus colonize the roots of a host plant. ...   edibility: deadly Image File history File links Hazard_T.svg Summary Description: The hazard symbol for toxic/highly toxic substances according to directive 67/548/EWG by the European Chemicals Bureau. ... The current version of the article or section is written like a magazine article instead of the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia. ...

Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the death cap, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Widely distributed across Europe, A. phalloides associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. An adaptable organism, its range is expanding in other countries after it was accidentally introduced alongside oak, chestnut, and pine. The large fruiting bodies (i.e., the mushrooms), appearing in summer and autumn, are generally greenish in colour, with a white stipe and gills. Classes Subdivision Teliomycotina    Urediniomycetes Subdivision Ustilaginomycotina    Ustilaginomycetes Subdivision Hymenomycotina    Homobasidiomycetes - mushrooms The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club_shaped structure called a basidium. ... Subkingdom/Phyla Chytridiomycota Blastocladiomycota Neocallimastigomycota Glomeromycota Zygomycota Dikarya (inc. ... The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics and contains some of the most toxic known mushrooms, found worldwide. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas, Greek for fungus roots) is the result of a mutualistic association between a fungus and a plant. ... Species See List of Quercus species The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of several hundred species of trees and shrubs in the genus Quercus (from Latin oak tree), and some related genera, notably Cyclobalanopsis and Lithocarpus. ... Species Castanea alnifolia - Bush Chinkapin* Castanea crenata - Japanese Chestnut Castanea dentata - American Chestnut Castanea henryi - Henrys Chestnut Castanea mollissima - Chinese Chestnut Castanea ozarkensis - Ozark Chinkapin Castanea pumila - Allegheny Chinkapin Castanea sativa - Sweet Chestnut Castanea seguinii - Seguins Chestnut * treated as a synonym of by many authors Chestnut (Castanea), including... This article deals with the tree; for the e-mail client see Pine email client Species About 115. ... Diagram of a basidiomycete stipe with a annulus and vulva In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. ... Mushroom gills Mushroom gills revealed through backlighting. ...

Unfortunately, these toxic mushrooms resemble several edible species commonly consumed by humans, increasing the risk of accidental ingestion. A. phalloides has an infamous reputation for being one of the most poisonous of all known toadstools. It has been involved in a majority of human deaths from mushroom poisoning, including several important historical figures such as the Roman Emperor Claudius and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. It has been the subject of much research, and many biologically active agents have been isolated. The principal toxic constituent is α-amanitin, which damages the liver and kidneys, often fatally. No truly effective antidote is known. For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI Charles VI, (German Karl VI; in full Karl Josef Franz)Holy Roman Emperor (October 1, 1685 – October 20, 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1711 to 1740 and the second son of Leopold I with his third wife, Eleonore-Magdalena of Pfalz-Neuburg. ... Alpha-amanitin or α-amanitin is a cyclic nonribosomal peptide of eight amino acids. ...

Taxonomy and naming

The death cap was first described by French botanist Sébastien Vaillant in 1727, who gave a succinct phrase name "Fungus phalloides, annulatus, sordide virescens, et patulus", which is still recognizable as the fungus today.^[1] Though the scientific name phalloides means "phallus-shaped", it is unclear whether it is named for its resemblance to a literal phallus or the stinkhorn mushrooms Phallus. In 1821, Elias Magnus Fries described it as Agaricus phalloides, but included all white Amanitas within its description.^[2] Finally in 1833, Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link settled on the name Amanita phalloides,^[3] after Persoon had named it Amanita viridis thirty years earlier.^[4][5] Although Louis Secretan's use of the name Amanita phalloides predates Link's, it has been rejected for nomenclatural purposes because Secretan's works did not use binomial nomenclature consistently;^[6][7] some taxonomists have, however, disagreed with this opinion.^[8][9] Sébastien Vaillant (May 26, 1669 - May 20, 1722) was a French botanist. ... In biology, binomial nomenclature is a standard convention used for naming species. ... ‹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... The genus Phallus, commonly known as stinkhorns, are a group of basidiomycetes which produce a foul-scented, phallus-shaped mushroom, whence they derive their name. ... Drawn image of Elias Magnus Fries Elias Magnus Fries (August 15, 1794 – February 8, 1878) was a Swedish botanist born at Femsjö in Smalandia. ... Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (February 2, 1767 - January 1, 1850) was a German naturalist and botanist. ... Christian Hendrik Persoon (February 1, 1761 - November 16, 1836) was a mycologist who made additions to Linnaeus mushroom taxonomy. ... Louis (Gabriel Abraam Samuel Jean) Secretan (1758–1839 in Lausanne), was a Swiss lawyer and mycologist. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Amanita phalloides is the type species of Amanita section Phalloideae, a group that contains all of the deadly poisonous Amanita species thus far identified. Most notable of these are the species known as destroying angels, namely Amanita virosa and A. bisporiga as well as the fool's mushroom (A. verna). The term "destroying angel" has been applied to A. phalloides at times, but "death cap" is by far the most common vernacular name used in English. Other common names also listed include "stinking amanita"^[10] and "deadly amanita".^[11] A type species fixes the name of a genus (or of a taxon in a rank lower than genus). ... Binomial name Amanita virosa Lam. ... Binomial name Amanita virosa A Destroying Angel (Amanita virosa, , , and ) is a deadly toxic mushroom in the amanita genus, which contains some of the most toxic known mushrooms. ... For other uses, see Destroying angel (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Amanita virosa Lam. ...

A rarely appearing all-white form was initially described A. phalloides f. alba by Max Britzelmayr,^[12][13] though its status has been unclear. It is often found growing amid normally coloured death caps. It has been described, in 2004, as a distinct variety and includes what was termed A. verna var. tarda.^[14] The true Amanita verna fruits in spring and turns yellow with KOH solution, whereas A. phalloides never does.^[15] The chemical compound potassium hydroxide, (KOH) sometimes known as caustic potash, potassa, potash lye, and potassium hydrate, is a metallic base. ...

Description

Appearing after periods of rain from late summer through autumn,^[16] the death cap has a large and imposing epigeous (aboveground) fruiting body (basidiocarp), usually with a pileus (cap) from 5 to 15 cm (2–6 in) across, initially rounded and hemispherical, but flattening with age.^[17] The colour of the cap can be pale-, yellowish-, or olive-green, often paler toward the margins and often paler after rain. The cap surface is sticky when wet and easily peeled, a troublesome feature, as that is allegedly a feature of edible fungi.^[18] The remains of the partial veil is seen as a skirtlike, floppy annulus usually about 1 to 1.5 cm (0.4–0.6 in) below the cap. The crowded white lamellae (gills) are free. The stipe is white with a scattering of grayish-olive scales and is 8 to 15 cm (3–6 in) long and 1 to 2 cm (3/8–3/4 in) thick, with a swollen, ragged, sac-like white volva (base).^[17] As the volva, which may be hidden by leaf litter, is a distinctive and diagnostic feature, it is important to remove some debris to check for it.^[19] Epigeal, epigean, epigeic and epigeous are biological terms describing an organisms activity above the soil surface. ... Mushroom In fungi, the fruiting body (also known as sporocarp) is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. ... Pileus may mean: In science: Pileus (mycology), the cap of a mushroom. ... A centimetre (American spelling centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of length that is equal to one hundredth of a metre, the current SI base unit of length. ... An inch (plural: inches; symbol or abbreviation: in or, sometimes, ″ - a double prime) is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... Partial veil is a mycological term which describes a structure of some mushrooms which protects the developing gills or other spore-producing surface. ... An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of a mushroom. ... Mushroom gills Mushroom gills revealed through backlighting. ... Diagram of a basidiomycete stipe with a annulus and vulva In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. ... The volva is a mycological term to describe a cup-like structure at the base of a mushroom which is a remnant of the Universal veil. ...

The smell has been described as initially faint and honey-sweet but strengthening over time to become overpowering, sickly-sweet and objectionable.^[16] Young specimens first emerge from the ground resembling a white egg covered by a universal veil, which then breaks, leaving the volva as a remnant. The spore print is white, a common feature of Amanita. The transparent spores are globular to egg-shaped, measure 8–10 μm (0.3–0.4 mil) long, and stain blue with iodine.^[16] The gills, on the other hand, are seen to stain pallid lilac or pink with concentrated sulfuric acid.^[20][21] The Universal veil is a mycological term to describe a cup like structure that appears in some gilled mushrooms. ... Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print. ... A micrometre (American spelling: micrometer, symbol µm) is an SI unit of length equal to one millionth of a metre, or about a tenth of the diameter of a droplet of mist or fog. ... A thou, also known as a mil, is a unit of length equal to one thousandth of an international inch. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iodine, I, 53 Chemical series halogens Group, Period, Block 17, 5, p Appearance violet-dark gray, lustrous Standard atomic weight 126. ... Sulfuric (or sulphuric) acid, H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ...

A young death cap emerging from universal veil (France)

Image File history File links Size of this preview: 415 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (976 × 1411 pixel, file size: 335 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Amanite phalloïde à peine éclose. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 415 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (976 × 1411 pixel, file size: 335 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Amanite phalloïde à peine éclose. ...

Distribution and habitat

The death cap is native to Europe, where it is widespread.^[22] It is found from the southern coastal regions of Scandinavia in the north, to Ireland in the west, east to Poland and western Russia,^[14] and south throughout the Balkans, in Italy and Spain, and in Morocco and Algeria in north Africa.^[23] There are records from further east into Asia but these have yet to be confirmed as A. phalloides.^[24] For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... Scandinavia is a historical and geographical region centered on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe which includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...

It is ectomycorrhizally associated with a number of tree species. In Europe, these include a large number of hardwood and, less frequently, conifer species. It appears most commonly under oaks but also under beeches, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, birches, filberts, hornbeams, pines, and spruces.^[12] In other areas, A. phalloides may also be associated with these trees or only with some species but not others. In coastal California, for example, A. phalloides is associated with coast live oak but not with the various coastal pine species, such as Monterey pine.^[25] In countries where it has been introduced it has been restricted to those exotic trees it would associate with in its natural range. There is, however, evidence of A. phalloides associating with hemlock and with genera of the Myrtaceae: Eucalyptus in Tanzania^[26] and Algeria,^[23] and Leptospermum and Kunzea in New Zealand.^[27][12] This suggests the species may have invasive potential.^[24] A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas, Greek for fungus roots) is the result of a mutualistic association between a fungus and a plant. ... Beech is a typical temperate zone hardwood For the record label, see Hardwood Records. ... Orders & Families Cordaitales † Pinales   Pinaceae - Pine family   Araucariaceae - Araucaria family   Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family   Sciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family   Cupressaceae - Cypress family   Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family   Taxaceae - Yew family Vojnovskyales † Voltziales † The conifers, division Pinophyta, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the Kingdom Plantae. ... For other uses, see Beech (disambiguation). ... Species Castanea alnifolia - Bush Chinkapin* Castanea crenata - Japanese Chestnut Castanea dentata - American Chestnut Castanea henryi - Henrys Chestnut Castanea mollissima - Chinese Chestnut Castanea ozarkensis - Ozark Chinkapin Castanea pumila - Allegheny Chinkapin Castanea sativa - Sweet Chestnut Castanea seguinii - Seguins Chestnut * treated as a synonym of by many authors Chestnut (Castanea), including... Species Aesculus arguta: Texas Buckeye Aesculus californica: California Buckeye Aesculus chinensis: Chinese Horse-chestnut Aesculus flava (): Yellow Buckeye Aesculus glabra: Ohio Buckeye Aesculus hippocastanum: Common Horse-chestnut Aesculus indica: Indian Horse-chestnut Aesculus neglecta: Dwarf Buckeye Aesculus parviflora: Bottlebrush Buckeye Aesculus pavia: Red Buckeye Aesculus sylvatica: Painted Buckeye Aesculus turbinata... Species Many species; see text and classification Birch is the name of any tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. ... Binomial name Corylus maxima Mill. ... Species Carpinus betulus - European Hornbeam Carpinus caroliniana - American Hornbeam Carpinus cordata - Sawa Hornbeam Carpinus fargesii - Farges Hornbeam Carpinus laxiflora - Aka-shide Hornbeam Carpinus japonica - Japanese Hornbeam Carpinus orientalis - Oriental Hornbeam Carpinus tschonoskii - Chonowskis Hornbeam Carpinus turczaninowii - Turkzaninovs Hornbeam The hornbeams (Carpinus) are a genus of relatively small hardwood... Species About 35; see text. ... Binomial name Quercus agrifolia The Coast live oak, Quercus agrifolia, also called the California live oak, is an evergeen oak, highly variable and often shrubby, found in the coastal regions of southwestern North America from Mendocino County, California south to northern Baja California in Mexico. ... Binomial name Pinus radiata D.Don Pinus radiata (family Pinaceae) is known in English as Monterey Pine in some parts of the world (mainly in the USA, Canada and the British Isles), and Radiata Pine in others (primarily Australia, New Zealand and Chile). ... Species Eastern Hemlock Carolina Hemlock Taiwan Hemlock Northern Japanese Hemlock Himalayan Hemlock Forrests Hemlock Western Hemlock Mountain Hemlock Southern Japanese Hemlock Tsuga is a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. ... Genera 130; see list The Myrtaceae or Myrtle family are a family of dicotyledon plants, placed within the order Myrtales. ... This article is about the plant genus. ... Species About 80-86, including: Leptospermum arachnoides Leptospermum epacridoideum Leptospermum grandiflorum Leptospermum javanicum Leptospermum juniperinum Leptospermum laevigatum Leptospermum lanigerum Leptospermum liversidgei Leptospermum minutifolium Leptospermum myrtifolium Leptospermum nitidum Leptospermum obovatum Leptospermum parviflorum Leptospermum petersonii Leptospermum polygalifolium Leptospermum recurvum Leptospermum roei Leptospermum rotundifolium Leptospermum rupestre Leptospermum scoparium - Manuka Leptospermum sphaerocarpum Leptospermum spinescens... Species See text. ...

By the end of the 19th century, Charles Horton Peck had reported A. phalloides in North America.^[28] However, in 1918, samples from the Eastern United States were identified as being a distinct though similar species, A. brunnescens, by G. F. Atkinson of Cornell University.^[29] By the 1970s it had become clear that A. phalloides actually does occur in the United States, apparently having been introduced from Europe alongside chestnuts, with populations on the West and East Coasts.^[29][30] A more recent historical review concluded that the East Coast populations were introduced but that the origins of the West Coast population remain unclear, due to the scantness of historical records.^[24] Charles Horton Peck, born March 30th 1833 in Sand Lake, New York, died 1917 in Albany, New York, was an American mycologist of the 19th and early 20th centuries. ... Binomial name Amanita brunnescens Amanita brunnescens, also known as the brown star-footed amanita or cleft-footed amanita is a native North American mushroom of the large genus Amanita. ... “Cornell” redirects here. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

Amanita phalloides has been conveyed to new countries across the southern hemisphere with the importation of hardwoods and conifers. Introduced oaks appear to have been the vector to Australia and South America; populations under oaks have been recorded from Melbourne and Canberra,^[31][32] as well as Uruguay.^[33] It has been recorded under other introduced trees in Argentina^[34] and Chile.^[35] Pine plantations are associated with the fungus in Tanzania^[26] and South Africa, where it is also found under oaks and poplars.^[36] Species See List of Quercus species The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of several hundred species of trees and shrubs in the genus Quercus (from Latin oak tree), and some related genera, notably Cyclobalanopsis and Lithocarpus. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... This article is about the Australian city; the name may also refer to City of Melbourne or Melbourne city centre. ... For other uses, see Canberra (disambiguation). ... Subgenera Subgenus Strobus Subgenus Ducampopinus Subgenus Pinus See Pinus classification for complete taxonomy to species level. ... This article is about woody plants of the genus Populus. ...

Toxicity

Warning sign in Canberra, Australia

As the common name suggests, the fungus is highly toxic, and it is responsible for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide.^[37] In 2006, a family of three in Poland was poisoned, resulting in one death and the two survivors requiring liver transplants.^[38] It is estimated that 30 grams (1 oz), or half a cap, of this mushroom is enough to kill a human.^[39] Some authorities strongly advise against putting suspected death caps in the same basket with fungi collected for the table and to avoid touching them.^[18][40] Furthermore, the toxicity is not reduced by cooking, freezing, or drying. Not surprisingly, its biochemistry has been researched intensively for decades.^[29] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1536x2048, 909 KB) Warning sign for Death Cap Mushrooms, Canberra, Australia File links The following pages link to this file: Death Cap ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1536x2048, 909 KB) Warning sign for Death Cap Mushrooms, Canberra, Australia File links The following pages link to this file: Death Cap ... For other uses, see Canberra (disambiguation). ... The current version of the article or section is written like a magazine article instead of the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia. ... BIC pen cap, about 1 gram. ... Thermostability is the quality of a substance to resist irreversible change in its chemical or physical structure at high temperature. ...

Similarity to edible species

Recent cases highlight the issue of the similarity of A. phalloides to the edible paddy straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea, with east- and southeast-Asian immigrants in Australia and the west coast of the United States falling victim. In an episode in Oregon, four members of a Korean family required liver transplants.^[41] Of the seven people poisoned in the Canberra region between 1988 and 1998, three were from Laos.^[42] This misidentification is a leading cause of mushroom poisoning in the United States. It has been suggested that Mycophagy be merged into this article or section. ... Binomial name Volvariella volvacea (Bulliard ex Fries) Singer Volvariella volvacea (also known as straw mushroom or paddy straw mushroom; syn. ... Official language(s) (none)[1] Capital Salem Largest city Portland Area  Ranked 9th  - Total 98,466 sq mi (255,026 km²)  - Width 260 miles (420 km)  - Length 360 miles (580 km)  - % water 2. ... For other uses, see Canberra (disambiguation). ...

Novices may mistake juvenile death caps for edible puffballs^[43] or mature specimens for other edible Amanita species such as Amanita lanei, and for this reason some authorities recommend avoiding the collecting of Amanita species for the table altogether.^[44] The white form of A. phalloides may be mistaken for edible species of Agaricus, especially the young fruitbodies whose unexpanded caps conceal the telltale white gills; all mature species of Agaricus have dark-coloured gills.^[45] Binomial name Amanita lanei (Murrill) Sacc. ... Agaricus is a large and important genus of mushrooms containing both edible and poisonous species, with possibly over 300 members worldwide[1][2]. The genus includes the button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), and the Field mushroom (Agaricus campestris) the dominant cultivated mushrooms of the West. ...

In Europe, other similarly green-capped species collected by mushroom hunters include various green-hued brittlegills of the genus Russula and the formerly popular Tricholoma flavovirens, now regarded as hazardous owing to a series of restaurant poisonings in France. Brittlegills, such as Russula heterophylla, R. aeruginea, and R. virescens, can be distinguished by their brittle flesh and the lack of both volva and ring.^[46] Other similar species include A. subjunquillea in eastern Asia and A. arocheae, which ranges from Andean Colombia north at least as far as central Mexico, both of which are also poisonous. Around 750 worldwide species of mushrooms compose the genus Russula. ... Tricholoma equestre or Tricholoma flavovirens, also known as Man on horseback or Yellow knight is a formerly widely eaten but hazardous fungus of the Tricholoma genus that forms ectomycorrhiza with pine trees. ... Binomial name (Schaeff. ... Binomial name S. Imai Amanita subjunquillea, also known as the East Asian death cap is a mushroom of the large genus Amanita, which occurs in East and Southeast Asia. ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Tulloss, Ovrebo & Halling (1992) Amanita arocheae, also known as the Latin American death cap is a mushroom of the large genus Amanita, which occurs in Central and South America. ...

Biochemistry

The species is now known to contain two main groups of toxins, both multicyclic (ring-shaped) peptides, spread throughout the mushroom tissue: the amatoxins and the phallotoxins. Another toxin is phallolysin, which has shown some hemolytic (red blood cell–destroying) activity in vitro. An unrelated compound, antamanide, has also been isolated. In organic chemistry, a cyclic organic compound is one in which a series of carbon atoms are connected together to form a loop or ring. ... Peptides (from the Greek πεπτος, digestible), are the family of short molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various α-amino acids. ... Thallus is an undifferentiated vegetative tissue (without specialization of function) of some non-mobile organisms, which were previously known as the thallophytes. ... Amatoxins are a subgrup of toxins found in Amanita phalloides and also in Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species. ... The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds, all of which have seven similar peptide rings, isolated from the death cap (Amanita phalloides). ... Phallolysin is a toxic haemolysin that has been isolated from the death cap Amanita phalloides. ... Hemolysis (alternative spelling haemolysis) is the excessive breakdown of red blood cells. ... Antamanide is a cyclic decapeptide isolated from a fungus, the death cap Amanita phalloides. ...

Amatoxins consist of at least eight compounds with a similar structure, that of eight amino-acid rings; they were isolated in 1941 by Heinrich O. Wieland and Rudolf Hallermayer of the University of Munich.^[29] Of the amatoxins, α-amanitin is the chief component and along with β-amanitin is likely responsible for the toxic effects.^[47][48] Their major toxic mechanism is the inhibition of RNA polymerase II, a vital enzyme in the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA, and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Without mRNA essential protein synthesis and hence cell metabolism grind to a halt and the cell dies.^[49] The liver is the principal organ affected, as it is the organ which is first encountered after absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, though other organs, especially the kidneys, are susceptible.^[50] Heinrich Otto Wieland (June 4, 1877 – August 5, 1957) was a German chemist. ... Main building of the Ludwig Maximilians University Main staircase of the university, Munich The Atrium at the main building The Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich (German: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München), also known as LMU or simply University of Munich, is a university in the heart of Munich. ... Alpha-amanitin or α-amanitin is a cyclic nonribosomal peptide of eight amino acids. ... Beta-amanitin or β-amanitin is a cyclic nonribosomal peptide of eight amino acids. ... RNA polymerase II (also called RNAP II and Pol II) transcribes DNA to synthesize precursors of mRNA and most snRNA. A 550 kDa complex of 12 subunits, RNAP II is the most studied type of RNA polymerase. ... The life cycle of an mRNA in a eukaryotic cell. ... The stem-loop secondary structure of a pre-microRNA from Brassica oleracea. ... Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid consisting of a string of covalently-bound nucleotides. ... An overview of protein synthesis. ... The liver is an organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. ... The kidneys are organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ...

The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds, all of which have seven similar peptide rings. Phalloidin was isolated in 1937 by Feodor Lynen, Heinrich Wieland's student and son-in-law, and Ulrich Wieland of the University of Munich. Though phallotoxins are highly toxic to liver cells,^[51] they have since been found to have little input into the death cap's toxicity as they are not absorbed through the gut.^[49] Furthermore, phalloidin is also found in the edible (and sought-after) Blusher (Amanita rubescens).^[29] Another group of minor active peptides are the virotoxins, which consist of six similar monocyclic heptapeptides.^[52] Like the phallotoxins they do not exert any acute toxicity after ingestion in humans.^[49] Phalloidin is a toxin from the death cap mushroom Amanita phalloides that binds actin, preventing its depolymerization and poisoning the cell. ... Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen (6 April 1911 – 6 August 1979) was a German biochemist. ... Binomial name (Pers. ...

Symptoms

Death caps have been reported to taste pleasant.^[29][53] This, coupled with the delay in the appearance of symptoms—during which time internal organs are being severely, sometimes irreparably, damaged—makes it particularly dangerous. Initially, symptoms are gastrointestinal in nature and include colicky abdominal pain, with watery diarrhea and vomiting which may lead to dehydration, and, in severe cases, hypotension, tachycardia, hypoglycemia, and acid-base disturbances.^[54][55] These first symptoms resolve two to three days after the ingestion. A more serious deterioration signifying liver involvement may then occur—jaundice, diarrhea, delirium, seizures, and coma due to fulminant hepatic failure and attendant hepatic encephalopathy caused by the accumulation of normally liver-removed substance in the blood.^[10] Renal failure (either secondary to severe hepatitis^[56][52] or caused by direct toxic renal damage^[49]) and coagulopathy may appear during this stage. Life-threatening complications include increased intracranial pressure, intracranial hemorrhage, sepsis, pancreatitis, acute renal failure, and cardiac arrest.^[54][55] Death generally occurs six to sixteen days after the poisoning.^[57] For the Physics term GUT, please refer to Grand unification theory The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and... Biliary colic is when a gallstone blocks either the common bile duct or the duct leading into it from the gallbladder. ... Types 5-7 on the Bristol Stool Chart are often associated with diarrhea Diarrhea (in American English) or diarrhoea (in British English) is a condition in which the sufferer has frequent watery, loose bowel movements (from the Greek word διάρροια; literally meaning through-flowing). Acute infectious diarrhea is a common cause... Vomiting (also throwing up or emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of ones stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. ... Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydro in ancient Greek) from an object. ... In physiology and medicine, hypotension refers to an abnormally low blood pressure. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Hypoglycemia (hypoglycæmia in the UK) is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. ... Acid-base physiology is the study of the acids, bases and their reactions in the body. ... Jaundice, also known as icterus (attributive adjective: icteric), is a yellowing of the skin, conjunctiva (a clear covering over the sclera, or whites of the eyes) and mucous membranes caused by hyperbilirubinemia (increased levels of bilirubin in red blooded animals). ... This article is about the mental state and medical condition. ... This article is about the medical condition. ... In medicine, a coma (from the Greek koma, meaning deep sleep) is a profound state of unconsciousness. ... Liver failure is the final stage of liver disease. ... Hepatic encephalopathy is a potentially reversible neuropsychiatic abnormality in the setting of liver failure, whether chronic (as in cirrhosis), or acutely. ... Renal failure is the condition in which the kidneys fail to function properly. ... Hepatitis (plural hepatitides) implies injury to liver characterised by presence of inflammatory cells in the liver tissue. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... Intracranial pressure, (ICP), is the pressure exerted by the cranium on the brain tissue, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and the brains circulating blood volume. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Sepsis (in Greek Σήψις, putrefaction) is a serious medical condition, resulting from the immune response to a severe infection. ... Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. ...

Up to the mid-20th century, the mortality rate was around 60–70%, but this has greatly improved with advances in medical care. A review of death cap poisoning throughout Europe from 1971 to 1980 found the overall mortality rate to be 22.4% (51.3% in children under ten and 16.5% in those older than ten).^[58] This has fallen further in more recent surveys to around 10–15%.^[59]

Treatment

Consumption of the death cap is a medical emergency requiring hospitalization. There are four main categories of therapy for poisoning: preliminary medical care, supportive measures, specific treatments, and liver transplantation.^[60] {{Otheruses4|the medical term|the Australian television series|Medical Emergenc an immediate threat to a persons life or long term health. ...

Preliminary care consists of gastric decontamination with either activated carbon or gastric lavage, however, due to the delay between ingestion and the first symptoms of poisoning, it is commonplace for patients to arrive for treatment many hours after ingestion, potentially reducing the efficacy of these interventions.^[60][61] Supportive measures are directed towards treating the dehydration which results from fluid loss during the gastrointestinal phase of intoxication and correction of metabolic acidosis, hypoglycemia, electrolyte imbalances, and impaired coagulation.^[60] Activated carbon from a water filter used for carbon filtering in powder and block form Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal or activated coal, is a general term which covers carbon material mostly derived from charcoal. ... Gastric lavage, also commonly called a stomach pump, is the process of cleaning out the contents of the stomach. ... In medicine, metabolic acidosis is a state in which the blood pH is low (under 7. ... An electrolyte is a substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium. ...

No definitive antidote is available, but some specific treatments have been shown to improve survivability. High-dose continuous intravenous penicillin G has been reported to be of benefit, though the exact mechanism is unknown,^[58] and trials with cephalosporins show promise.^[62][63] There is some evidence that intravenous silibinin, an extract from the blessed milk thistle (Silybum marianum), may be beneficial in reducing the effects of death cap poisoning. Silibinin prevents the uptake of amatoxins by hepatocytes, thereby protecting undamaged hepatic tissue; it also stimulates DNA-dependent RNA polymerases, leading to an increase in RNA synthesis.^[64][65][66] N-acetylcysteine has shown promise in combination with other therapies.^[67] Animal studies indicate the amatoxins deplete hepatic glutathione;^[68] N-acetylcysteine serves as a glutathione precursor and may therefore prevent reduced glutathione levels and subsequent liver damage.^[69] None of the antidotes used have undergone prospective, randomized clinical trials, and only anecdotal support is available. Silibinin and N-acetylcysteine appear to be the therapies with the most potential benefit.^[60] Repeated doses of activated carbon may be helpful by absorbing any toxins that are returned to the gastrointestinal tract following enterohepatic circulation.^[70] Other methods of enhancing the elimination of the toxins have been trialed; techniques such as hemodialysis,^[71] hemoperfusion,^[72] plasmapheresis,^[73] and peritoneal dialysis^[74] have occasionally yielded success but overall do not appear to improve outcome.^[49] For the Japanese rock band, see Penicillin (band). ... The cephalosporins, are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. ... Silibinin (INN) (silybin, Legalon®) is the major active constituent of silymarin, the mixture of flavonolignans extracted from plant Milk thistle (Silybum marianum). ... Species Silybum eburneum Silybum marianum Silybum × gonzaloi Ref: IPNI Query The milk thistles are the genus Silybum of flowering plants, in the daisy family (Asteraceae). ... Hepatocytes make up 60-80% of the cytoplasmic mass of the liver. ... Acetylcysteine (rINN) (IPA: ), also known as N-acetylcysteine (abbreviated NAC), is a pharmacological agent used mainly as a mucolytic and in the management of paracetamol overdose. ... Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide. ... A randomised controlled trial (RCT), also known as randomised clinical trial, is a form of clinical trial, or scientific procedure used in the testing of the efficacy of medicines or medical procedures. ... Enterohepatic circulation, is the excretion of a drug (or a metabolite of it) through the bile to be re-absorbed in the gut and sent again to the liver along the portal vein, so the excretion-reabsortion cycle can start again. ... It has been suggested that Artificial kidney be merged into this article or section. ... Hemoperfusion (British English: haemoperfusion) is a medical process used to remove toxic substances from a patients blood. ... Plasmapheresis is the removal of (components of) blood plasma from the circulation. ... Peritoneal dialysis In medicine, peritoneal dialysis is a method for removing waste such as urea and potassium from the blood, as well as excess fluid, when the kidneys are incapable of this (i. ...

In patients developing liver failure, a liver transplant is often the only option to prevent death. Liver transplants have become a well-established option in amatoxin poisoning.^[55][54][75] This is a complicated issue, however, as transplants themselves may have significant complications and mortality; patients require long-term immunosuppression to maintain the transplant.^[60] That being the case, there has been a reassessment of criteria such as onset of symptoms, prothrombin time (PTT), serum bilirubin, and presence of encephalopathy for determining at what point a transplant becomes necessary for survival.^[76][77][78] Evidence suggests that, although survival rates have improved with modern medical treatment, in patients with moderate to severe poisoning up to half of those who did recover suffered permanent liver damage.^[79] However, a follow-up study has shown that most survivors recover completely without any sequelae if treated within 36 hours of mushroom ingestion.^[80] Complication, in medicine, is a unfavorable evolution of a disease, a health condition or a medical treatment. ... Immunosuppression is the medical suppression of the immune system. ... The prothrombin time (PT) and its derived measures of prothrombin ratio (PR) and international normalized ratio (INR) are measures of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. ... Bilirubin is a yellow breakdown product of normal heme catabolism. ... Hepatic encephalopathy is a potentially reversible neuropsychiatic abnormality in the setting of liver failure, whether chronic (as in cirrhosis), or acutely. ... A sequela (plural sequelae) is a pathological condition resulting from a disease. ...

Notable victims

Several historical figures may have died from Amanita phalloides poisoning (or other similar, toxic Amanitas). These were either accidental poisonings or assassination plots. Alleged victims of this kind of poisoning include Roman Emperor Claudius, Pope Clement VII, Tsaritsa Natalia Naryshkina, and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI.^[81] Assassin and Assassins redirect here. ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... For the antipope (1378–1394) see antipope Clement VII and other Popes named Clement see Pope Clement. ... Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina (September 1, 1651 - February 4, 1694) was the Tsaritsa of Russia from 1645 to 1676. ... Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI Charles VI of Austria (October 1, 1685 – October 20, 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1711 to 1740 and the second son of Leopold I with his third wife, Eleonore-Magdalena of Pfalz-Neuburg, first assumed the royal title Charles III of Aragon and Castile...

R. Gordon Wasson recounted the details of these deaths, noting the likelihood of Amanita poisoning. In the case of Clement VII, the illness that led to his death lasted some five months, making the case clearly inconsistent with amatoxin poisoning. Natalia Naryshkina is said to have consumed a large quantity of pickled mushrooms prior to her death. However, it is unclear whether the mushrooms themselves were poisonous or whether she succumbed to food poisoning.^[81] R. Gordon Wasson (September 22, 1898 – December 23, 1986) was an author, amateur researcher and banker. ... Foodborne illness or food poisoning is caused by consuming food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or parasites. ...

Charles VI experienced indigestion after eating a dish of sautéed mushrooms. This led to an illness from which he died ten days later — symptomology consistent with amatoxin poisoning. Charles' death led to the War of Austrian Succession. Noted Voltaire, "this dish of mushrooms changed the destiny of Europe."^[82][81] Indigestion is a condition that is frequently caused by eating too fast, especially by eating high-fat foods quickly. ... Sautéing is a method of cooking food using a small amount of fat in a shallow pan over relatively high heat. ... The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The case of the Claudius poisoning is more complex. It is known that Claudius was very fond of eating Caesar's mushroom. Following his death, many sources have attributed it to his being fed a meal of death caps instead of Caesar's mushrooms. However, ancient authors such as Tacitus and Suetonius are unanimous about there having been poison added to the mushroom dish, rather than the dish having been prepared from poisonous mushrooms. Wasson speculates that the poison used to kill Claudius was derived from death caps, with a fatal dose of colocynth being administered later during his illness.^[83][81] Binomial name Amanita caesarea (Scop. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... Binomial name Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. ...

Footnotes

The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 142nd day of the year (143rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 142nd day of the year (143rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... June 1 is the 152nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (153rd in leap years), with 213 days remaining. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... Scientific American is a popular-science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly) since August 28, 1845, making it the oldest continuously published magazine in the United States. ... The Australian Journal of Botany is a peer-reviewed international journal that publishes original research, and sometimes review articles, on botanical topics, especially those related to Australian plants. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 142nd day of the year (143rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 163rd day of the year (164th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) was founded in 1967 and originally named the Ohio College Library Center. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ...

Sources

• Benjamin, Denis R. (1995). Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas — a handbook for naturalists, mycologists and physicians. New York: WH Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-2600-9. 
• Jordan Peter, Wheeler Steven. (2001). The Ultimate Mushroom Book. London: Hermes House. ISBN 1-85967-092-X. 
• Zeitlmayr, Linus (1976). Wild Mushrooms:An Illustrated Handbook. Hertfordshire: Garden City Press. ISBN 0-584-10324-7. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Amanita phalloides

• Amanita phalloides: the death cap
• More on this species
• Death cap in Australia - ANBG website
• On the Trail of the Death Cap Mushroom from American National Public Radio

   

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