The characteristics of Ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships, unknown again until modern engineering. Egyptian paper, made from papyrus, and pottery was mass produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The wheel, however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the chariot in the sixteenth century B.C. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses. Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... The inclined plane is one of the classical simple machines; as the name suggests, it is a flat surface whose endpoints are at different heights. ... For the Portuguese town and parish, see Lever, Portugal. ... Coils of rope used for long-line fishing A rope (IPA: ) is a length of fibers, twisted or braided together to improve strength for pulling and connecting. ... Look up truss in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point, or a point alongside the ship at the mid-point of its length. ... For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Papyrus (disambiguation). ... Unfired green ware pottery on a traditional drying rack at Conner Prairie living history museum. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... For other uses, see Wheel (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Chariot (disambiguation). ... Maritime history is a broad thematic element of global history. ... For other uses, see Ship (disambiguation). ... Eddystone Lighthouse, one of the first wavewashed lighthouses For other uses, see Lighthouse (disambiguation). ...

Ancient Egyptian depiction of women engaged in mechanical rope making, the first graphic evidence of the craft, shown in the two lower rows of the illustration

Image File history File linksMetadata Ancient_Egypt_rope_manufacture. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Ancient_Egypt_rope_manufacture. ... Coils of rope used for long-line fishing A rope (IPA: ) is a length of fibers, twisted or braided together to improve strength for pulling and connecting. ...

Technology in Dynastic Egypt

Significant advances in ancient Egypt during the dynastic period include astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.^[1] Their geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3,4,5 right triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt also was a center of alchemy research for much of the western world. Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... Archaeological evidence indicates that a distinct culture was developing in the Nile valley from before 5000 BC. What is now called the Pharaonic Period is dated from around 3100 BC, when Egypt became a unified state, until its survival as an independent state ceased in 332 BC, with its conquest... For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation). ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For other uses, see Geometry (disambiguation). ... Surveyor at work with a leveling instrument. ... There is also Nile, a death metal band from South Carolina, USA. The Nile in Egypt Length 6 695 km Elevation of the source 1 134 m Average discharge 2 830 m³/s Area watershed 3 400 000 km² Origin Africa Mouth the Mediterranean Basin countries Uganda - Sudan - Egypt The... For alternate meanings, such as the musical instrument, see triangle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ...

Paper and writing

A section of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which is written and drawn on papyrus

The word paper comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 B.C. in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome. The establishment of the Library of Alexandria limited the supply of papyrus for others. As a result, according to the Roman historian Pliny (Natural History records, xiii.21), parchment was invented under the patronage of Eumenes of Pergamum to build his rival library at Pergamum. Image:Egypt. ... Image:Egypt. ... The Book of the Dead comd A Section of Plate 3 from the Papyrus of Ani. ... Writing material refers to the materials that provide the surfaces on which humans use writing instruments to inscribe writings. ... For other uses, see Papyrus (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Cyperus papyrus L. Papyrus sedge, also known as Bulrush or Paper reed (Cyperus papyrus) is a monocot belonging to the sedge family Cyperaceae. ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... Inscription regarding Tiberius Claudius Balbilus of Rome (d. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ... German parchmenter, 1568 Parchment is a material for the pages of a book or codex, made from fine calf skin, sheep skin or goat skin. ... Coin of Eumenes II Eumenes II of Pergamum (ruled 197 - 160 BC) was king of Pergamum and a member of the Attalid dynasty. ... Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in northwestern Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282...

Egyptian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system, served as the basis for the Phoenician alphabet from which later alphabets were derived. With this ability, writing and record keeping, the Egyptians developed one of the—if not the—first decimal system. The city of Alexandria retained preeminence for its records and scrolls with its library. That ancient library was damaged by fire when it fell under Roman rule,^[2] and was destroyed completely by 642.^[3][4] With it, a huge amount of antique literature, history, and knowledge was lost. A section of the Papyrus of Ani showing cursive hieroglyphs. ... Phonetic (pho-NET-ic) is a nationwide voicemail-to-text messaging service available for most digital mobile phones in which a subscriber is provided a custom voice mailbox for the purpose of receiving all incoming voice messages as actual transcribed text for reading via short messaging (also known as SMS... Writing systems of the world today. ... The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to begin with a cut-off date of 1050 BCE. It was used by the Phoenicians to write Phoenician, a Northern Semitic language. ... Decimal, or denary, notation is the most common way of writing the base 10 numeral system, which uses various symbols for ten distinct quantities (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, called digits) together with the decimal point and the sign symbols + (plus) and − (minus... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Inscription regarding Tiberius Claudius Balbilus of Rome (d. ... Events August 5 - In the Battle of Maserfield, Penda king of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald, king of Bernicia. ...

Structures and construction

Many temples from Ancient Egypt are still standing today. Some are in ruin from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. The Egyptian structures are among the largest constructions ever conceived and built by humans. They constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Temples and tombs built by a pharaoh famous for her projects, Hatshepsut, were massive and included many colossal statues of her. King Tut's rock-cut tomb in the Valley of the Kings was full of jewellery and antiques. In some late myths, Ptah was identified as the primordial mound and had called creation into being, he was considered the deity of craftsmen, and in particular, of stone-based crafts. Ancient Egyptian architecture stretches over at least ten thousand years, reaching from the paleolithic to the historic periods of human culture. Temple of Hephaestus, an Doric Greek temple in Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted) For other uses, see Temple (disambiguation). ... Maatkare[1] Truth is the Ka of Re Nomen Khnumt-Amun Hatshepsut[1] Joined with Amun, Foremost of Noble Ladies Horus name Wesretkau [1] Mighty of Kas Nebty name Wadjrenput[1] Flourishing of years Golden Horus Netjeretkhau[1] Divine of appearance Consort(s) Thutmose II Issue Neferure Father Thutmose I... Ptah also refers to the asteroid 5011 Ptah Ptah In Egyptian mythology, Ptah (also spelt Peteh) was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead cosmogony, which was more literally referred to as Ta-tenen (also spelt Tathenen), meaning risen land, or as Tanen, meaning submerged land. ... For at least ten thousand years, the Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations in the world which developed a vast array of structures known as Ancient Egyptian architecture. ...

Mediterranean peoples developed lighthouse technology and built large fire-based lighthouses, most notably, the Lighthouse of Alexandria. It was built in the third century B.C. (between 285 and 247 B.C.) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt, which has since become a peninsula. This lighthouse was renowned in its time and knowledge of it was never lost. A 2006 drawing of it created from the study of many references, is shown at the right. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Eddystone Lighthouse, one of the first wavewashed lighthouses For other uses, see Lighthouse (disambiguation). ... Graphic reconstruction of the lighthouse according to a comprehensive study of 2006. ... Antiquity and modernity stand cheek-by-jowl in Egypts chief Mediterranean seaport For other uses, see Alexandria (disambiguation). ...

Alexandria was a port for the ships that traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported into Egypt. A giant cantilevered hoist lifted cargo to and from ships.

The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include the Great Pyramid of Kafu and the Great Sphinx—among the largest and most famous buildings in the world. Central New York City. ... Great Pyramid redirects here. ... The Great Sphinx of Giza, with the Pyramid of Khafre in the background. ...

Giza Plateau, Cairo. Khafre's pyramid in the background

The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer, literally "place of ascendance." The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over thirteen acres in area. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia. Image File history File links Egypt. ... Image File history File links Egypt. ... For other meanings, see pyramid (disambiguation). ... A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. ... For the New York prison see The Tombs. ... For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation). ... The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now Cairo, Egypt in Africa, and is the only remaining member of the Seven Wonders of the World. ... An acre is the name of a unit of area in a number of different systems, including Imperial units and United States customary units. ... For other uses, see Wonders of the World (disambiguation). ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River...

The Red Pyramid of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c.2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite." The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt, [3] include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... (27th century BC - 26th century BC - 25th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2900 - 2334 BC – Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period. ... A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. ... Menkaures Pyramid, located on the Giza Plateau on the southwestern outskirts of Cairo, Egypt, is the smallest of the three Pyramids of Giza. ... For other uses, see Limestone (disambiguation). ... The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now Cairo, Egypt in Africa, and is the only remaining member of the Seven Wonders of the World. ... (27th century BC - 26th century BC - 25th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2900 - 2334 BC – Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period. ... The Etruscan Sarcophagus of the Spouses, at the National Etruscan Museum. ... Egypt: Site of Aswan (bottom). ... The Black Pyramid of Amenemhat III is now nothing more than a pile of rubble. ... ny m3ˁt rˁ (Nimaatre)[1] Belonging to the truth of Re Nomen Amenemhat[1] Amun is in front Horus name Wahankh[1] Long of life Nebty name Itjijautawy[1] Who comes to the inheritance of the two lands Golden Horus ˁ3 ba(u) (Aabaw)[1] Great of power Issues... In archaeological parlance, a pyramidion is the uppermost piece, or capstone, of an Egyptian pyramid. ... Main entrance of the Egyptian Museum The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, in Cairo, Egypt, is home to the most extensive collection of pharaonic antiquities in the world. ... For other uses, see Cairo (disambiguation). ... Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... For other uses, see Column (disambiguation). ... Pre-fabricated, pre-tensioned concrete lintels spanning garage doors. ... Sill may refer to: Sill (geology), a tabular mass of igneous rock that has been intruded laterally between layers of older rock Architecture, a sill is the bottom edge of a window or door Construction, the bottom horizontal member of a wall or building to which vertical members are attached... A diagram of a door, with the jambs labeled. ... A veneer is a thin covering over something. ...

The ancient Egyptians had some of the first monumental stone building (such as in Sakkhara). How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick Hunt^[5] has postulated that the Egyptians used emery shown to have higher hardness on the Mohs scale. Regarding construction, of the various methods possibly used by builders, the lever moved and uplifted obelisks weighing more than 100 tons. Any rigid object that is used with an appropriate fulcrum or pivot point to multiply the mechanical force that can be applied to another object. This is also termed mechanical advantage, and is one example of the principle of moments. The principle of leverage can also be derived using Newton's laws of motion, and modern statics. It is important to notice that the amount of work accomplished is given by force times distance. The lever allows less effort to be expended to move an object a greater distance. For instance, to use a lever to lift a certain unit of weight with an effort of half a unit, the distance from the fulcrum of the spot where force is applied must be twice the distance between the weight and the fulcrum. For example, to halve the effort of lifting a weight resting one meter from the fulcrum, we would need to apply force two meres from the other side of the fulcrum. The amount of work accomplished is always the same and independent of the dimensions of the lever (in an ideal lever). The lever only allows to trade effort for distance. Levers are one of the six simple machines. For other uses, see granite (disambiguation). ... Emery is a very hard rock type used to make abrasive powder. ... The hardenability of a metal alloy is its capability to be hardened by heat treatment. ... The Mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material. ... The Luxor obelisk in the Place de la Concorde in Paris Obelisk outside Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome. ... This article is about the metric tonne. ... This article is about the concept in physics. ...

Obelisks were a prominent part of the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrances of temples. In 1911, Encyclopedia Britannica wrote, "The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that of Senwosri I. of the XIIth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 feet high)". The word "obelisk" is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the great traveler, was the first writer to describe the objects. Twenty-seven ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the unfinished obelisk being built by Hatshepsut to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh. It broke while being carved out of the quarry and was abandoned when another one was begun to replace it. The broken one was found at Aswan and provides the only insight into the methods of how they were hewn. The obelisk symbolized the sun deity Ra and during the brief religious reformation of Akhenaten, was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten, the sun disk. It was also thought that the deity existed within the structure. The Egyptians also used pillars extensively. The Luxor obelisk in the Place de la Concorde in Paris Obelisk outside Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome. ... Maatkare[1] Truth is the Ka of Re Nomen Khnumt-Amun Hatshepsut[1] Joined with Amun, Foremost of Noble Ladies Horus name Wesretkau [1] Mighty of Kas Nebty name Wadjrenput[1] Flourishing of years Golden Horus Netjeretkhau[1] Divine of appearance Consort(s) Thutmose II Issue Neferure Father Thutmose I... For other uses, see Ra (disambiguation). ... Look up pillar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Egyptian ship, 1250 B.C. Egyptian ship on the Red Sea, showing a rope truss being used to stiffen the beam of this ship

The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge to some extent of sail construction.^[6] This is governed by the science of aerodynamics. A primary feature of a properly designed sail is an amount of "draft", caused by curvature of the surface of the sail. When the sail is oriented into the wind, this curvature induces lift, much like the wing of an airplane. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 416 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,630 × 848 pixels, file size: 43 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 416 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,630 × 848 pixels, file size: 43 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... A gaff-rigged cutter flying a mainsail, staysail and genoa jib For other uses, see Sail (disambiguation). ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For the Daft Punk song, see Aerodynamic (song). ... In nautical parlance, the draft or draught of a sail is a degree of curvature in a horizontal cross-section. ...

It is unknown whether the Ancient Egyptians had kites, but a team lead by Mory Gharib raised a 6,900-pound, 15-foot obelisk into vertical position with a kite, a system of pulleys, and a support frame.^[7] Maureen Clemmons developed the idea that the ancient Egyptian used kites for work.^[8] Ramps have been reported as being widely used in Ancient Egypt. A ramp is inclined plane, or a plane surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal surface. The inclined plane permits one to overcome a large resistance by applying a relatively small force through a longer distance than the load is to be raised. In civil engineering the slope (ratio of rise/run) is often referred to as a grade or gradient. An inclined plane is one of the commonly-recognized simple machines. For other uses, see Kite (disambiguation). ...

Navigation

Stern-mounted steering oar of an Egyptian riverboat depicted in the Tomb of Menna (c. 1422-1411 B.C.)

Although quarter rudders were the norm in Nile navigation, the Egyptians were the first to use also stern-mounted rudders. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2048x1197, 222 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Rudder ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2048x1197, 222 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Rudder ... The Ancient Egyptian artisan Mennatalla Shawky was Scribe of the Fields of the Lord of the Two Lands, probably during the reign of Thutmose IV during the 18th dynasty. ...

Irrigation and agriculture

Irrigation as the artificial application of water to the soil was used to some extent in Ancient Egypt. In crop production it is mainly used to replace missing rainfall in periods of drought, as opposed to reliance on direct rainfall (referred to as dryland farming or as rainfed farming). There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural lake of the Fayûm as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, as the lake swelled annually as caused by the annual flooding of the Nile.^[9] For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation). ... nomen or birth name Amenemhat III (1807-1797 BC) was a Egypt. ... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the Twelfth Dynasty. ... BCE redirects here. ... Al Fayyum or El Faiyûm (Arabic: الفيوم ) is the capital of Al Fayyum Governorate, Egypt. ... The Nile (Arabic: , transliteration: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. ...

Glassworking

The earliest known glass beads from Egypt were made during the New Kingdom around 1500 BC and were produced in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue beads, which were believed to have magical quiconess powers. The Egyptians made small jars and bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound around a bag of sand tied to a rod. The glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together. The glass-covered sand bag was kept in motion until the required shape and thickness was achieved. The rod was allowed to cool, then finally the bag was punctured and the rod removed. The Egyptians also created the first colored glass rods which they used to create colorful beads and decorations. They also worked with cast glass, which was produced by pouring molten glass into a mold, much like iron and the more modern crucible steel.^[10] This article is about the material. ... The New Kingdom is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. ... For other uses, see Iron (disambiguation). ... Crucible steel describes a number of different techniques for making steel alloy by slowly heating and cooling iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible. ...

Astronomy and astrology

Egypt was one of the most important places in the development of astrology, although astrology first originated in Babylon. Early Egyptian culture identified celestial objects with deities and spirits. They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. It is generally believed that the first "professional" astronomers were religious leaders in the temples, and that their understanding of the "heavens" was seen as "divine", hence astronomy's ancient connection to what is now called astrology. Ancient structures with astronomical alignments (such as Pyramids and temples) probably fulfilled both astronomical and religious functions. Egyptian astrology provided star charts that have been found in Egypt that date as early as 4,200 B.C. It is thought that some of the astrological signs of the zodiac originated in Egypt, although most did originate in Babylon. Aries the ram appears for the first time in an Egyptian zodiac, although the head of a goose was also used as a symbol in that area by the Egyptians. It is also possible that the sign of Gemini the Twins first appeared in Egypt, named after the two bright stars (Castor and Pollux in Greek), which were called the Two Stars by the Egyptians. There is also evidence of a Babylonian origin for Gemini however, as the symbol of the twins appears there too. Leo the Lion is almost certainly Egyptian in origin, as the Babylonian name for the same constellation was the Great Dog. Virgo the virgin is quite likely to have originated with the Egyptian grain goddess Nidaba, as in Egypt the harvest began when the full moon was in Virgo. Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). ... For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation). ... The Sumerian goddess of writing, particularly documents in the palace archives. ...

The Denderah Zodiac was on the ceiling of the temple of Hathor at Karnak

Claims have been made that precession of the equinoxes was known in Ancient Egypt prior to the time of Hipparchus. Some buildings in the Karnak temple complex, for instance, reportedly were oriented toward the point on the horizon where certain stars rose or set at key times of the year. Because of the precession, the stars in one "constellation" or section of the sky would be seen to be first in the nightly display each night until the precession moved along to the next section being first, with the previously-first constellation below the horizon until the arch was completed. A few centuries later, when precession made the orientations of the buildings obsolete, the temples were rebuilt. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Precession of the equinoxes refers to the precession of the Earths axis of rotation. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... This article is about the Karnak temple complex in Egypt. ...

Note however that the observation that a stellar alignment has grown wrong does not necessarily mean that the Egyptians understood or even cared what was going on. For instance, from the Middle Kingdom on they used a table with entries for each month to tell the time of night from the passing of constellations: these went in error after a few centuries because of their calendar and precession, but were copied (with scribal errors) for long after they lost their practical usefulness or possibly the understanding of them.

At a temple in Dendera for one of the oldest deities of Egypt, Hathor—whose worship dates to before the first dynasties—a star-map was found on the ceiling. Called the Dendera Zodiac, it is thought by some to date only from a late (Ptolemaic) age of Greek rule, and supposedly records the precession of the equinoxes (Tompkins 1971). In any case, if the ancient Egyptians knew of precession, their knowledge is not recorded in surviving astronomical texts per se, which suggest they were not assiduous observers of the sky (Parker). Hathor Temple is the main temple in the Dendera Temple Complex, built around 1st century BC. Hathor Temple, photographed 23rd December 2003 Categories: Buildings and structures stubs | Ancient Egypt stubs ... Dendera (Arabic: دندرة) (also spelled Denderah/Dandarah), is a little town in Egypt on the west bank of the Nile, about 5 km south from Qina, on the opposite side of the Nile. ... For other uses, see Hathor (disambiguation). ... Entrance to the Dendera Temple Complex Dendera Temple complex, (Ancient Egyptian: Iunet or Tantere). ...

In late Egyptian mythology Thoth is credited with making the calculations for the establishment of the heavens, stars, Earth,^[11] and everything in them.^[12] Compare this to how his feminine counterpart, Ma'at, was the force which maintained the entire Universe.^[13] She was a deity of much earlier origin, who was paired with Thoth when the Egyptians began to designate both female and male aspects for each deity, expressed as counterparts or marriages. He is said to direct the motions of the heavenly bodies. Without his words, the Egyptians believed, the deities would not exist.^[14] His power was almost unlimited in the Underworld and rivalled that of Ra and Osiris.^[15] (Ra and Osiris were later deities seen as children, or later generations of early deities.) Without the constant oversight by Ms'st, however, it was thought that the entire universe would revert to the chaos that existed before she came into being and set the order of the universe. Thoth (Ramesseum, Luxor) Thoth (his Greek name derived from the Egyptian *, written by Egyptians as ) was considered one of the most important deities of the Egyptian pantheon, often depicted with the head of an ibis. ...

Medicine

The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document which attempts to describe and analyze the brain: given this, it might be seen as the very beginnings of modern neuroscience. However, while Egyptian medicine had some effective practices, it was not without its ineffective and sometimes harmful practices. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology was largely ineffective.^[16] According to a paper published by Michael D. Parkins, 72% of medical 260 prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus had no curative elements.^[17] According to Michael D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Egypt and was continued through the Middle Ages,^[18] and while the use of animal dung can have curative properties,^[19] it is not without its risk. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing, tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developing tetanus.^[20] Frank J. Snoek wrote that Egyptian medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies which he believes could have been harmful.^[21] Plates vi & vii of the Edwin Smith Papyrus at the Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine The Edwin Smith papyrus is the worlds earliest known medical document, written in hieratic around the 17th century BCE, but thought to be based on material from a thousand years earlier. ... Drawing of the cells in the chicken cerebellum by S. Ramón y Cajal Neuroscience is a field that is devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system. ... Egypt Medicine in the Egyptian times was really different from now. ...

Mummification of the dead was not always practised in Egypt. Once the practice began, an individual was placed at a final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol. The Egyptian funeral was a complex ceremony including various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in honor of the deceased. The poor, who could not afford expensive tombs, were buried in shallow graves in the sand, and because of the arid environment they were often naturally mummified. This article is about the corpse preparation method, for other uses of Mummy see Mummy (disambiguation) An Egyptian mummy kept in the Vatican Museums. ...

Other developments

The Egyptians developed a variety of furniture. There in the lands of ancient Egypt is the first evidence for stools, beds, and tables (such as from the tombs similar to Tutenkhamen's. Recovered Ancient Egyptian furniture includes a third millennium B.C. bed discovered in the Tarkhan Tomb, a c.2550 B.C. gilded set from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres, and a c. 1550 B.C. stool from Thebes. For the UK band, see Furniture (band). ... Look up stool in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Bed (disambiguation). ... Look up table in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hetepheres II must have been one of the longest living members of the royal family of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt. ...

Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems.^{[attribution needed]} There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology.^{[citation needed]} There is not a neat progression to an Iron Age in Ancient Egypt and it is still unknown why the Egyptians took so long to use iron.^{[citation needed]} Some have suggested that the Egyptians had some form of understanding of meteorites and the electric phenomena,^[22][23] from observing lightning and interacting with electric fish (such as the Malapterurus electricus) or other animals (such as electric eels). Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... For other uses, see Iron (disambiguation). ... Willamette Meteorite A meteorite is a natural object originating in outer space that survives an impact with the Earths surface without being destroyed. ... The article on electrical energy is located elsewhere. ... A phenomenon (plural: phenomena) is an observable event, especially something special (literally something that can be seen from the Greek word phainomenon = observable). ... Not to be confused with lighting. ... An electric fish is a fish that can generate electric field]s. ... Electric catfish (family Malapteruridae) is the common name of several species of freshwater catfish with the ability to produce an electric shock of up to 350 volts. ... This article is about the animal. ...

The single representation of the image, called the "Dendera light" by some alternative suggestions, exists on the left wall of the right wing in one of the crypts of the Hathor temple

Those exploring alternative theories of ancient technology have suggested that there were electric lights used in Ancient Egypt.^[24] Engineers have constructed a working model based on the relief and some authors (such as Peter Krassa and Reinhard Habeck) have produced a basic theory of the device's operation.^[25] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 × 1200 pixel, file size: 867 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (All user names refer to en. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 × 1200 pixel, file size: 867 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) (All user names refer to en. ... Fringe science is a phrase used to describe scientific inquiry in an established field that departs significantly from mainstream or orthodox theories. ... The wheel was invented circa 4000 BC, and has become one of the worlds most famous, and most useful technologies. ... Unsolved problems in Egyptology: Did Egyptians have some form of understanding of electricity? Did the Egyptians use batteries? What is the relief at Dendera? The Dendera light is a stone relief located in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex in Egypt. ...

The standard explanation, however, for the Dendera light, which comprises three stone reliefs (one single and a double representation) in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex, is that the depicted image represents a lotus leaf and flower from which a sacred snake is spawned in accordance with Egyptian mythological beliefs. This sacred snake sometimes is identified as the Milky Way (the snake) in the night sky (the leaf, lotus, or "bulb") that became identified with Hathor because of her similar association in creation. Unsolved problems in Egyptology: Did Egyptians have some form of understanding of electricity? Did the Egyptians use batteries? What is the relief at Dendera? The Dendera light is a stone relief located in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex in Egypt. ... For other uses, see Hathor (disambiguation). ...

Later technology in Egypt

Greco-Roman Egypt

Main articles: Ancient Greek technology and innovation and Roman technology

Ancient Greek technology is a set of artifacts and customs, developed by ancient Greek and Hellenistic engineers who wrote in Greek, that lasted for more than one thousand years. ... The Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in ca. ...

Arab Egypt

Main articles: Inventions in the Muslim world and Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world

A significant number of inventions were produced in the Muslim world, many of them with direct implications for Fiqh related issues. ... This timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world covers the development of science and technology in the Islamic world. ...

See also

• List of Egypt-related topics
• Egyptian chronology
• History of ancient Egypt
• History of technology
• Egyptian mathematics
• History of science in early cultures
• Astrology and astronomy
• Archaeoastronomy
• Graham Hancock
• Egyptian pyramids
• Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
• Imhotep

This page aims to list articles on Wikipedia that are related to Egypt. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Archaeological evidence indicates that a distinct culture was developing in the Nile valley from before 5000 BC. What is now called the Pharaonic Period is dated from around 3100 BC, when Egypt became a unified state, until its survival as an independent state ceased in 332 BC, with its conquest... The wheel was invented circa 4000 BC, and has become one of the worlds most famous, and most useful technologies. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice. ... Graham Hancock Graham Hancock (born 1951) is a British writer and journalist. ... A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. ... The techniques by which the Egyptian pyramids were built is a matter of much speculation. ... This article is about the ancient Egyptian official. ...

References and sources

Citations and notes

1. ^ Homer's Odyssey stated that "the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art". [1]
2. ^ Plutarch, Life of Caesar 49.3.
3. ^ Abd-el-latif (1203): "the library which 'Amr ibn al-'As burnt with the permission of 'Umar."
4. ^ Europe: A History, p 139. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0
5. ^ http://hebsed.home.comcast.net/hunt.htm
6. ^ Hatshepsut oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and with several sails. Various other instances of Egyptian sailing vessels exist, also.
7. ^ Caltech researchers successfully raise obelisk with kite to test theory about ancient pyramids
8. ^ Caltech researchers successfully raise obelisk with kite to test theory about ancient pyramids
9. ^ Amenemhet III. Britannica Concise. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.
10. ^ Susan Hampton. Glassmaking in Antiquity. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved on 2007-03-21.
11. ^ (Budge Gods of the Egyptians Vol. 1 p. 401)
12. ^ Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians Vol. 1
13. ^ (Budge Gods of the Egyptians Vol. 1 pp. 407-8)
14. ^ (Budge Gods of the Egyptians Vol. 1 p. 408)
15. ^ Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians Vol. 1
16. ^ http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf
17. ^ 10th Annual Proceedings of the History of Medicine Days [2]
18. ^ http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf
19. ^ http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0838/is_n65/ai_12694466
20. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=681065&dopt=Abstract
21. ^ http://spectrum.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/14/3/116
22. ^ Bruno Kolbe, Francis ed Legge, Joseph Skellon, tr., "An Introduction to Electricity". Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1908. 429 pages. Page 391. (cf., "[...] high poles covered with copper plates and with gilded tops were erected 'to break the stones coming from on high'. J. Dümichen, Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels, Strassburg, 1877")
23. ^ Heinrich Karl Brugsch-Bey and Henry Danby Seymour, "A History of Egypt Under the Pharaohs". J. Murray, 1881. Page 422. (cf., [... the symbol of a] 'serpent' is rather a fish, which still serves, in the Coptic language, to designate the electric fish [...])
24. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Dawn of Astronomy". Kessinger Publishing, 1992. 448 pages. ISBN 1564591123 Page 180. (cf., "[...] possibility that the electric light was known to the Ancient Egyptians.)"
25. ^ Krassa, P., and R. Habeck, "Das Licht der Pharaonen.". ISBN 3-548-35657-5 (Tr. The Light of the Pharaohs)

Books, journals, and magazines

• Leslie C. Kaplan, "Technology of Ancient Egypt. 2004, 24 pages. ISBN 0823967859
• Denys Allen Stocks "Experiments in Egyptian Archaeology: Stoneworking Technology in Ancient Egypt". Routledge, 2003. 336 pages. ISBN 0415306647
• Katheryn A. Bard" Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt By Katheryn A. Bard". Routledge, 1999. 968 pages. ISBN 0415185890
• R. J. Forbes, "Studies in Ancient Technology". 1966.
• Örjan Wikander, "Handbook of Ancient Water Technology". 2000.
• Patricia Blackwell Gary and Richard Talcott, "Stargazing in Ancient Egypt," Astronomy, June 2006, pp. 62-67.
• Evans, James. The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
• Pannekoek, A. A History of Astronomy. New York: Dover, 1961.
• Parker, Richard A. "Egyptian Astronomy, Astrology, and Calendrical Reckoning." Dictionary of Scientific Biography 15:706-727.
• Tomkins, Peter. Secrets of the Great Pyramid. With an appendix by Livio Catullo Stecchini. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1971.
• Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Religion. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
• Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians Volume 1 of 2. New York: Dover Publications, 1969 (original in 1904).

Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Abdallatif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-Ul-Latif (1162-1231), a celebrated physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at Baghdad. ... Events April 16 - Philip II of France enters Rouen, leading to the eventual unification of Normandy and France. ... ˤAmr ibn al-ˤĀs (Arabic: عمرو بن العاص) (born c. ... For other uses, see Umar (disambiguation). ... Maatkare[1] Truth is the Ka of Re Nomen Khnumt-Amun Hatshepsut[1] Joined with Amun, Foremost of Noble Ladies Horus name Wesretkau [1] Mighty of Kas Nebty name Wadjrenput[1] Flourishing of years Golden Horus Netjeretkhau[1] Divine of appearance Consort(s) Thutmose II Issue Neferure Father Thutmose I... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 80th day of the year (81st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Secret Life of Plants Cover Published in 1973, The Secret Life of Plants was written by Peter Tompkins and Christopher Bird. ...

External links

• History of the Egyptian obelisks, egipto.com