Angolan Civil War
Part of the Cold War and the South African Border War
Date 1975 – August 2002 Location Angola Result MPLA victory
Belligerents
MPLA Republic of Cuba AAF Mozambique[1] Soviet Union	UNITA FNLA South Africa Republic of Zaire United States
Commanders
Agostinho Neto José Eduardo dos Santos	Jonas Savimbi Holden Roberto
Casualties and losses
Over 500,000 militants[2] and hundreds of thousands of civilians

The Angolan Civil War began in Angola after the end of the war for independence from Portugal in 1975. The war featured conflict between two primary Angolan factions, the Communist MPLA and the anti-Communist UNITA. Yet a third movement, the FLEC, an association of separatist militant groups, fought for the independence of Cabinda. For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... Combatants Republic of Angola, Republic of Cuba, SWAPO, USSR, East Germany, Republic of Zambia Republic of South Africa, UNITA Scope of operations Operational Area: The South African Border War The South African Border War refers to the conflict that took place from 1966 to 1989 in South-West Africa (now... Image File history File links LocationAngola. ... Image File history File links Bandeira_do_MPLA.svg‎ Bandeira do pt:Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola. ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Portuguese: Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cuba. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Angola. ... Angolas military is called the FAA, the Portuguese acronym for Angolan Armed Forces, headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Mozambique. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union. ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... Image File history File links Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg‎ Banderia da pt:Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola. ... External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... Image File history File links Flag_of_South_Africa_1928-1994. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Zaire. ... For other uses, see Zaire (disambiguation). ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Bandeira_do_MPLA.svg‎ Bandeira do pt:Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola. ... António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ... Image File history File links Bandeira_do_MPLA.svg‎ Bandeira do pt:Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola. ... José Eduardo dos Santos (born August 28, 1942 in Luanda) is the current President, Head of Government, and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Angola. ... Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (August 3, 1934–February 22, 2002) was a rebel leader in Angola who founded the UNITA movement in 1966, and ultimately proved a central figure in 20th century Cold War politics. ... Image File history File links Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg‎ Banderia da pt:Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola. ... Álvaro Holden Roberto (born 12 January 1923 in São Salvador do Congo) is the leader of the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). ... The Angolan War of Independence (1961–1989) was a multi-faction struggle for control of Angola. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimiento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... Anti-communism is opposition to communist ideology, organization, or government, on either a theoretical or practical level. ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... FLEC (Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda) is a liberation movement in Cabinda, Angola. ... Cabinda is a territory, ocupied by Angola. ...

Formally brought to an end in 2002, an estimated 500,000 people were killed in the 27-year war.^[2] The Angolan Civil War was one of the largest, longest and most prominent armed conflicts of the Cold War. Both the Soviet Union and the U.S. considered it critical to the global balance of power and to the outcome of the Cold War. For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ...

In addition to the war's two primary factions (the MPLA and UNITA), several other factions also were engaged in the conflict. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola's (MPLA) base is among the Kimbundu people and the multiracial intelligentsia of Luanda. The MPLA, supported by the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, fought against the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), an organization based in the Bakongo region of the north and allied with the United States, the People's Republic of China and the Mobutu government in Zaïre. The United States, apartheid South Africa, and several other African nations also supported Jonas Savimbi's National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), whose ethnic and regional base lies in the Ovimbundu heartland of central Angola.^[3][4] The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Portuguese: Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... Kimbundu is one of the most spoken pre-colonial languages in central africa. ... The notion of an intellectual elite as a distinguished social stratum can be traced far back in history. ... Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the largest city and capital of Angola. ... A map of the Eastern Bloc 1948-1989. ... Flag of the FNLA The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Portuguese: Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola) is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal in the war of independence under the leadership of Holden Roberto. ... The Bakongo people (aka. ... Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku wa za Banga (or Mobutu Sese Seko Koko Ngbendu Wa Za Banga; October 14, 1930 - September 7, 1997) was the President of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) from 1965 to 1997. ... This article deals with the former name of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ... Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (August 3, 1934–February 22, 2002) was a rebel leader in Angola who founded the UNITA movement in 1966, and ultimately proved a central figure in 20th century Cold War politics. ... UNITA sticker The União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (UNITA) is an Angolan political faction. ... The Ovimbundu (aka Mbundu or Umbundu) are a large ethnic group of traders, farmers and herders who live on the Benguela Plateau of central Angola, Africa. ...

Roots of the conflict

Main article: Cabinda (province)

See also: Slavery in Angola

Unofficial flag of Cabinda

The territory of Cabinda is north of Angola proper, separated by a strip of territory 60 km (37.3 mi) long in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.^[5] A coup d'état in Portugal in 1926 led to military rule under the Estado Novo (New State). The new government annexed Cabinda from Belgian Congo in 1927 and the Constitution of 1933 designated Angola and Cabinda as overseas provinces.^[6][7] The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) formed in 1963 during the broader war for independence from Portugal. Contrary to the organization's name, Cabinda is an exclave, not an enclave. FLEC later split into the Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) and Renewal (FLEC-Renovada). Several other, smaller FLEC factions later broke away from these movements, but FLEC-R remained the most prominent because of its size and its tactics. FLEC-R members cut off the ears and noses of government officials and their supporters, similar to the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone in the 1990s.^[8] Despite Cabinda's relatively small size, foreign powers and the nationalist movements coveted the territory for its vast reserves of petroleum, the principal export of Angola then and now.^[9] Cabinda is a territory, ocupied by Angola. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cabinda. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cabinda. ... Cabinda is a territory, ocupied by Angola. ... Manuel Gomes da Costa The 28th May 1926 coup détat, sometimes called 28th May Revolution or, during the period of Estado Novo, National Revolution (Portuguese: Revolução Nacional), was a military action that put an end to the unstable Portuguese First Republic and initiated the Ditadura Nacional (National Dictatorship... There have been two regimes known as Estado Novo (meaning New State): Estado Novo (Brazil) Estado Novo (Portugal) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Motto: Travail et Progres (Work and Progress) The Belgian Congo Capital Léopoldville/Leopoldstad Political structure Colony Governor  - 1908-1910 Baron Wahis  - 1946-1951 Eugène Jacques Pierre Louis Jungers  - 1958-1960 Henri Arthur Adolf Marie Christopher Cornelis History  - Established 15 November, 1908  - Congolese independence 30 June, 1960 The Belgian... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... D is Bs exclave, but is not an enclave. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Revolutionary United Front (RUF) was a rebel army that fought a failed ten-year insurrection in Sierra Leone, starting in 1991 and ending in 2002. ... Petro redirects here. ...

In the war for independence, the primary ethnic division of assimilados versus indigenos peoples masked the inter-ethnic conflict between the various native tribes, a division that emerged in the early 1970s. The Union of Peoples of Angola, the predecessor to the FNLA, only controlled 15% of Angola's territory during the independence war, excluding MPLA-controlled Cabinda. The People's Republic of China openly backed UNITA upon independence despite the mutual support from its adversary South Africa and UNITA's pro-Western tilt. The PRC's support for Savimbi came in 1965, a year after he left the FNLA. China saw Roberto and the FNLA as the stooge of the West and the MPLA as the Soviet Union's proxy. With the Sino-Soviet split, South Africa presented the least odious of allies to the PRC.^[10][11] Álvaro Holden Roberto (born 12 January 1923 in São Salvador do Congo) is the leader of the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). ... The Sino-Soviet split was a major diplomatic conflict between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), beginning in the late 1950s, reaching a peak in 1969 and continuing in various ways until the late 1980s. ...

1970s

Main article: 1970s in Angola

Main article: Cuba in Angola

Independence

Agostinho Neto, the leader of the MPLA, declared the independence of the People's Republic of Angola on November 11, 1975, in accordance with the Alvor Accords.^[12] UNITA and the FNLA also declared Angolan independence as the Social Democratic Republic of Angola based in Huambo and the Democratic Republic of Angola based in Ambriz. FLEC, armed and backed by the French government, declared the independence of the Republic of Cabinda from Paris.^[13] The FNLA and UNITA forged an alliance on November 23, proclaiming their own coalition government based in Huambo^[14] with Holden Roberto and Jonas Savimbi as co-presidents and José Ndelé and Johnny Pinnock Eduardo as co-Prime Ministers.^[15] António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ... is the 315th day of the year (316th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Alvor Agreement, signed on January 15, 1975, granted Angola independence from Portugal on November 11, ending the war for independence while marking the transition to civil war. ... For Huambo the location in Amazonas, Peru, see Huambo District Huambo is the capital of Huambo province in Angola. ... Ambriz is a city in the province of Bengo, Angola. ... This article is about the capital of France. ... is the 327th day of the year (328th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For Huambo the location in Amazonas, Peru, see Huambo District Huambo is the capital of Huambo province in Angola. ... Álvaro Holden Roberto (born 12 January 1923 in São Salvador do Congo) is the leader of the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). ...

The South African government told Savimbi and Roberto in early November that the South African Defence Force (SADF) would soon end operations in Angola despite the failure of the coalition to capture Luanda and therefore secure international recognition at independence. Savimbi, desperate to avoid the withdrawal of the largest, friendly, military force in Angola, asked General Constand Viljoen to arrange a meeting for him with South African Prime Minister John Vorster, Savimbi's ally since October 1974. On the night of November 10, the day before independence, Savimbi secretly flew to Pretoria, South Africa and the meeting took place. In a reversal of policy, Vorster not only agreed to keep troops through November but promised to withdraw the SADF troops only after the OAU meeting on December 9.^[16][17] The Soviets, well aware of South African activity in southern Angola, flew Cuban soldiers into Luanda the week before independence. While Cuban officers led the mission and provided the bulk of the troop force, 60 Soviet officers in the Congo joined the Cubans on November 12. The Soviet leadership expressly forbid the Cubans from intervening in Angola's civil war, focusing the mission on containing South Africa.^[18] The South African Defence Force (SADF) were the South African armed forces from 1957 until 1994. ... Operation Savannah was the name given to the South African Defence Forces 1975 - 1976 invasion of Angola during the South African Border War. ... General Constand Viljoen SSA SD SOE SM (b 1933) was a South African military commander. ... This is a list of South African Prime Ministers. ... B. J. Vorster Balthazar Johannes Vorster (December 13, 1915 - September 10, 1983), better known as John Vorster, was Prime Minister of South Africa from 1966 to 1978, and President from 1978 to 1979. ... is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Motto: Praestantia Praevaleat Pretoria (May Pretoria Be Pre-eminent In Excellence) Country Province Established 1855 Area  - Total 1,644 km² (634. ... is the 343rd day of the year (344th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 316th day of the year (317th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

In 1975 and 1976 most foreign forces, with the exception of Cuba, withdrew. The last elements of the Portuguese military withdrew in 1975^[19] and the South African military withdrew in February 1976.^[20] On the other hand, Cuba's troop force in Angola increased from 5,500 in December 1975 to 11,000 in February 1976.^[21]

Clark Amendment

Main articles: Operation IA Feature and Clark Amendment

President Gerald Ford approved covert aid to UNITA and the FNLA through Operation IA Feature on July 18, 1975, despite strong opposition from officials in the State Department and the CIA. Ford told William Colby, the Director of Central Intelligence, to establish the operation, providing an initial US$6 million. He granted an additional $8 million on July 27 and another $25 million in August.^[22][23] Operation IA Feature, a covert Central Intelligence Agency operation, authorized U.S. government support for Jonas Savimbis UNITA and Holden Robertos FNLA militants. ... The Clark amendment was an amendment to the U.S. Arms Export Control Act of 1976, named for its sponsor, Senator Dick Clark (D-Idaho). ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  US Government Portal      For other uses, see President of the United States (disambiguation). ... For other persons named Gerald Ford, see Gerald Ford (disambiguation). ... Operation IA Feature, a covert Central Intelligence Agency operation, authorized U.S. government support for Jonas Savimbis UNITA and Holden Robertos FNLA militants. ... is the 199th day of the year (200th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The United States Department of State, often referred to as the State Department, is the Cabinet-level foreign affairs agency of the United States government, equivalent to foreign ministries in other countries. ... For the first secretary of the Sierra Club, see William Edward Colby. ... The Office of Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) was established on January 23rd 1946 with Adm. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... is the 208th day of the year (209th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Senator Dick Clark

Two days before the program's approval, Nathaniel Davis, the Assistant Secretary of State, told Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State, that he believed maintaining the secrecy of IA Feature would be impossible. Davis correctly predicted the Soviet Union would respond by increasing involvement in the Angolan conflict, leading to more violence and negative publicity for the United States. When Ford approved the program, Davis resigned.^[24] John Stockwell, the CIA's station chief in Angola, echoed Davis' criticism saying the success required the expansion of the program, but its size already exceeded what could be hidden from the public eye. Davis' deputy, former U.S. ambassador to Chile Edward Mulcahy, also opposed direct involvement. Mulcahy presented three options for U.S. policy towards Angola on May 13, 1975. Mulcahy believed the Ford administration could use diplomacy to campaign against foreign aid to the Communist MPLA, refuse to take sides in factional fighting, or increase support for the FNLA and UNITA. He warned however that supporting UNITA would not sit well with Mobutu Sese Seko, the ruler of Zaire.^[25][22] Nathaniel Davis was the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs in 1975. ... Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German-born American politician, and 1973 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. ... In several countries, Secretary of State is a senior government position. ... Stockwell John R. Stockwell is a former CIA officer who became a critic of United States government policies after serving in the Agency for thirteen years serving seven tours of duty. ... is the 133rd day of the year (134th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimiento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga (October 14, 1930 – September 7, 1997), known commonly as Mobutu, or Mobutu Sese Seko, born Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, was the President of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) for 32 years (1965–1997), in which he rose to power...

Dick Clark, a Democratic Senator from Iowa, discovered the operation during a fact-finding mission in Africa, but Seymour Hersch, a reporter for The New York Times, revealed IA Feature to the public on December 13, 1975.^[26] Clark proposed an amendment to the Arms Export Control Act, barring aid to private groups engaged in military or paramilitary operations in Angola. The Senate passed the bill, voting 54–22 on December 19, 1975 and the House passed the bill, voting 323–99 on January 27, 1976.^[23] Ford signed the bill into law on February 9, 1976.^[27] Even after the Clark Amendment became law, then-Director of Central Intelligence, George H. W. Bush, refused to concede that all U.S. aid to Angola had ceased.^[28][29] According to foreign affairs analyst Jane Hunter, Israel stepped in as a proxy arms supplier for the United States after the Clark Amendment took effect.^[30][2] For the U.S. counterterrorism official, see Richard Clarke Richard Clarence (Dick) Clark (born September 14, 1928 in Paris, Iowa) represented the state of Iowa in the United States Senate from 1973 to 1979. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      Further information: Politics of the United States#Organization of American political parties The Democratic... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Seymour Hersh Seymour Myron (Sy) Hersh (born April 8, 1937) is an American investigative journalist and author who contributes regularly to The New Yorker on military and security matters. ... The New York Times is a daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed internationally. ... is the 347th day of the year (348th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Clark amendment was an amendment to the U.S. Arms Export Control Act of 1976, named for its sponsor, Senator Dick Clark (D-Idaho). ... The Arms Export Control Act requires governments that receive weapons from the United States to use them for legitimate self-defense. ... Paramilitary designates forces whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force, but which are not regarded as having the same status. ... Type Upper House President of the Senate Richard B. Cheney, R since January 20, 2001 President pro tempore Robert C. Byrd, D since January 4, 2007 Members 100 Political groups Democratic Party Republican Party Last elections November 7, 2006 Meeting place Senate Chamber United States Capitol Washington, DC United States... is the 353rd day of the year (354th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Type Bicameral Speaker of the House of Representatives House Majority Leader Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Steny Hoyer, (D) since January 4, 2007 House Minority Leader John Boehner, (R) since January 4, 2007 Members 435 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political groups Democratic Party Republican Party... is the 27th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 40th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Office of Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) was established on January 23rd 1946 with Adm. ... George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12, 1924) was the 41st President of the United States, serving from 1989 to 1993. ... A proxy war is a war where two powers use third parties as a supplement or a substitute for fighting each other directly. ...

The U.S. government vetoed Angolan entry into the United Nations on June 23, 1976.^[31] Zambia forbid UNITA from launching attacks from its territory on December 28, 1976^[32] after Angola became a member of the United Nations.^[33] UN redirects here. ... is the 174th day of the year (175th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 362nd day of the year (363rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Vietnam

Main article: Vietnam War

The Vietnam War tempered foreign involvement in Angola's civil war as neither the Soviet Union nor the United States wanted to be drawn into an internal conflict of highly debatable importance in terms of winning the Cold War. CBS Newscaster Walter Cronkite spread this message in his broadcasts to "try to play our small part in preventing that mistake this time."^[34] The Politburo engaged in heated debate over the extent to which the Soviet Union would support a continued offensive by the MPLA in February 1976. Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko and Premier Alexey Kosygin led a faction favoring less support for the MPLA and greater emphasis on preserving détente with the West. Leonid Brezhnev, the then head of the Soviet Union, won out against the dissident faction and the Soviet alliance with the MPLA continued even as Neto publicly reaffirmed its policy of non-alignment at the 15th anniversary of the First Revolt.^[35] Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... CBS News logo, used from Sept. ... Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr. ... The Politburo (in Russian: Политбюро, full: Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, abbriviated Политбюро ЦК КПСС), known as the Presidium from 1952 to 1966, functioned as the central policymaking and governing body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. ... Andrei Gromyko Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (Андре́й Андре́евич Громы́ко) (July 18 (July 5, Old Style), 1909 – July 2, 1989) was Minister for Foreign Affairs and Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. ... Premier of the Soviet Union is the commonly used English term for the offices of Chairman of the Council of Peoples Commissars of the USSR (Председатель Совета Народных Комиссаров СССР; Predsedatel Soveta Narodnykh Komissarov SSSR) (1923-1946) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (Председатель Совета Министров СССР; Predsedatel Soveta Ministrov SSSR) (1946-1991), who... Alexey Nikolayevich Kosygin (Russian: ) (1904 - December 18, 1980) was a politician and administrator in the Soviet Union. ... Détente is a French term, meaning a relaxing or easing; the term has been used in international politics since the early 1970s. ... Occident redirects here. ... Brezhnev redirects here. ...

Angolan government and Cuban troops had control over all southern cities by 1977, but roads in the south faced repeated UNITA attacks. Savimbi expressed his willingness for rapprochement with the MPLA and the formation of a unity, socialist government, but he insisted on Cuban withdrawal first. "The real enemy is Cuban colonialism," Savimbi told reporters, warning, "The Cubans have taken over the country, but sooner or later they will suffer their own Vietnam in Angola." Government and Cuban troops used flame throwers, bulldozers, and planes with napalm to destroy villages in a 1.6-mile (2.6 km) wide area along the Angola-Namibia border. Only women and children passed through this area, "Castro Corridor," because government troops had shot all males ten years of age or older to prevent them from joining the UNITA. The napalm killed cattle to feed government troops and to retaliate against UNITA sympathizers. Angolans fled from their homeland; 10,000 going south to Namibia and 16,000 east to Zambia where they lived in refugee camps.^[33] Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington of the United Kingdom expressed similar concerns over British involvement in Rhodesia's Bush War during the Lancaster House negotiations in 1980.^[36] Peter Alexander Rupert Carington, 6th Baron Carrington, KG, GCMG, CH, MC, PC, JP, DL (born June 6, 1919), was British Foreign Secretary (1979–1982) and Secretary-General of NATO (1984–1988). ... This article is about the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia, todays Zimbabwe. ... Combatants Rhodesia ZANLA ZIPRA Government of Botswana Government of Tanzania Government of Zambia Mozambican Liberation Front [1] Commanders Ian Smith P. K. van der Byl Peter Walls ZANU: Robert Mugabe ZAPU: Joshua Nkomo Casualties unknown unknown Civilians killed = Around 30,000 The Rhodesian Bush War —­ as it was known at... The Lancaster House Agreement ended biracial rule in Zimbabwe Rhodesia following negotiations between representatives of the Patriotic Front (PF), consisting of ZAPU (Zimbabwe African Peoples Union) and ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union) and the Zimbabwe Rhodesia government, represented at that time by Bishop Abel Muzorewa and Ian Smith. ...

Shaba invasions

Shaba Province, Zaire

Main articles: Shaba I and Shaba II

About 1,500 members of the Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC) invaded Shaba, Zaire from eastern Angola on March 7, 1977. The FNLC wanted to overthrow Mobutu and the Angolan government, suffering from Mobutu's support for the FNLA and UNITA, did not try to stop the invasion. The FNLC failed to capture Kolwezi, Zaire's economic heartland, but took Kasaji and Mutshatsha. Zairian troops were defeated without difficulty and the FNLC continued to advance. Mobutu appealed to William Eteki of Cameroon, Chairman of the Organization of African Unity, for assistance on April 2. Eight days later, the French government responded to Mobutu's plea and airlifted 1,500 Moroccan troops into Kinshasa. This troop force worked in conjunction with the Zairian army and the FNLA^[37] of Angola with air cover from Egyptian pilots flying French Mirage fighter aircraft to beat back the FNLC. The counter-invasion force pushed the last of the militants, along with refugees, into Angola and Zambia in April.^{[38][39][40][41]} Image File history File links locator map showing a province of the Democratic Republic of Congo File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links locator map showing a province of the Democratic Republic of Congo File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... Combatants Zaire France Belgium Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC) Commanders Mobutu Sese Seko Nathaniel Mbumba Strength Unknown Unknown Casualties Unknown Unknown Shaba II is a proxy war that occurred in 1978 when the FNLC, Shaba separatists, encouraged by the governments of Angola and Cuba, invaded Shaba... Shaba Province, Zaire. ... Country Democratic Republic of the Congo Capital Lubumbashi Largest city Lubumbashi National language Swahili, Tshiluba Land area¹ 496 871 km² Governor Moïse Katumbi Chapwe Population Density 4 125 000 (est. ... is the 66th day of the year (67th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also: 1977 (album) by Ash. ... Kolwezi is a city in the south of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, west of Likasi in the province of Katanga. ... William Eteki Mboumouna served as the Secretary-General of the Organization of African Unity from 1974 to 1978. ... Flag of the Organisation of African Unity, later also used by the African Union. ... is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Nickname: Map of the Dem. ... External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... Former South African Air Force Mirage IIICZ The Dassault Mirage III is a supersonic fighter aircraft designed in France during the 1950s, and manufactured both in France and a number of other countries. ...

Mobutu accused the Angolan government, as well as the Cuban and Soviet governments, of complicity in the war.^[42] While Neto did support the FNLC, the Angolan government's support came in response to Mobutu's continued support for Angola's anti-Communists.^[43] The Carter Administration, unconvinced of Cuban involvement, responded by offering a meager $15 million-worth of non-military aid. American timidity during the war prompted a shift in Zaire's foreign policy from the U.S. to France, which became Zaire's largest supplier of arms after the intervention.^[44] Neto and Mobutu signed a border agreement on July 22, 1977.^[45] Order: 39th President Term of Office: January 20, 1977–January 20, 1981 Preceded by: Gerald Ford Succeeded by: Ronald Reagan Date of birth: October 1, 1924 Place of birth: Plains, Georgia Date of death: Place of death: First Lady: Rosalynn Carter Political party: Democratic Vice President: Walter Mondale James Earl... Mobutu Sese Sekos foreign policy emphasized his alliance with the United States and the Western world while ostensibly maintaining a non-aligned position in international affairs. ... is the 203rd day of the year (204th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also: 1977 (album) by Ash. ...

John Stockwell, the Central Intelligence Agency's station chief in Angola, resigned after the invasion, explaining in an article for The Washington Post article Why I'm Leaving the CIA, published on April 10, 1977 that he had warned Secretary of State Henry Kissinger that continued American support for anti-government rebels in Angola could provoke a war with Zaire. He also said covert Soviet involvement in Angola came after, and in response to, U.S. involvement.^[46] Stockwell John R. Stockwell is a former CIA officer who became a critic of United States government policies after serving in the Agency for thirteen years serving seven tours of duty. ... CIA redirects here. ... The Washington Post is the largest newspaper in Washington, D.C.. It is also one of the citys oldest papers, having been founded in 1877. ... is the 100th day of the year (101st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also: 1977 (album) by Ash. ... Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German-born American politician, and 1973 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. ...

The FNLC invaded Shaba again on May 11, 1978, capturing Kolwezi in two days. While the Carter Administration had accepted Cuba's insistence on its non-involvement in Shaba I, and therefore did not stand with Mobutu, the U.S. government now accused Castro of complicity.^[47] This time, when Mobutu appealed for foreign assistance, the U.S. government worked with the French and Belgian militaries to beat back the invasion, the first military cooperation between France and the United States since the Vietnam War.^[48][49] The French Foreign Legion took back Kolwezi after a seven-day battle and airlifted 2,250 European citizens to Belgium, but not before the FNLC massacred 80 Europeans and 200 Africans. In one instance the FNLC killed 34 European civilians who had hidden in a room. The FNLC retreated to Zambia, vowing to return to Angola. The Zairian army then forcibly evicted civilians along Shaba's 65-mile (105 km) long border with Angola. Mobutu, wanting to prevent any chance of another invasion, ordered his troops to shoot on sight.^[50] is the 131st day of the year (132nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar). ... Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... Legionnaire redirects here. ...

U.S. mediated negotiations between the Angolan and Zairian governments led to a peace accord in 1979 and an end to support for insurgencies in each others' respective countries. Zaire temporarily cutoff support to FLEC, the FNLA, and UNITA and Angola forbid further activity by the FNLC.^[48] FLEC (Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda) is a liberation movement in Cabinda, Angola. ... External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ...

Nitistas

Neto's Interior Minister, Nito Alves, had successfully put down Daniel Chipenda's Eastern Revolt and the Active Revolt during Angola's War of Independence. Factionalism within the MPLA became a major challenge to Neto's power by late 1975 and he gave Alves the task of once again clamping down on dissent. Alves shut down the Cabral and Henda Committees while expanding his influence within the MPLA through his control of the nation's newspapers and state-run television. Alves visited the Soviet Union in October 1976. When he returned, Neto began taking steps to neutralize the threat he saw in the Nitistas, followers of Alves. Neto called a plenum meeting of the Central Committee of the MPLA. Neto formally designated the party Marxist-Leninist, abolished the Interior Ministry and DOM, the official branch of the MPLA used by the Nitistas, and established a Commission of Enquiry. Neto used the commission, officially created to examine and report factionalism, to target the Nitistas, and ordered the commission to issue a report of its findings in March 1977. Alves and Chief of Staff José Van-Dunem, his political ally, began planning a coup d'état against dos Santos.^[51] The Interior Minister is a member of a Cabinet in a Government. ... Nito Alves was a member of the MPLA and commander of the special forces during the presidency of Agostinho Neto in Angola. ... Daniel Chipenda (died on February 28, 1996) fought in the Angolan War of Independence, serving as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angolas (MPLA) field commander in the Eastern Front before founding and leading the Eastern Revolt. ... The Eastern Revolt (Portuguese: Revolta do Leste; RDL) is an Angolan nationalist organization that fought in the war for independence from Portugal under the leadership of Daniel Chipenda. ... Plenum may refer to: the antithesis of a vacuum; in other words, completely filled space. ... Vladimir Lenin in 1920 Leninism is a political and economic theory which builds upon Marxism; it is a branch of Marxism (and it has been the dominant branch of Marxism in the world since the 1920s). ... Coup redirects here. ...

Alves represented the MPLA at the 25th Soviet Communist Party Congress in February 1977 and may have then obtained support for the coup from the Soviet Union. Alves and Van-Dunem planned to arrest Neto on May 21 before he arrived at a meeting of the Central Committee and before the commission released its report. The MPLA changed the location of the meeting shortly before its scheduled start, throwing the plotters' plans into disarray, but Alves attended the meeting and faced the commission anyway. The commission released its report, accusing him of factionalism. Alves fought back, denouncing Neto for not aligning Angola with the Soviet Union. After twelve hours of debate, the party voted 26 to 6 to dismiss Alves and Van-Dunem from their positions.^[51] is the 141st day of the year (142nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Ten armored cars with the FAPLA's 8th Brigade broke into São Paulo prison at 4 a.m. on May 27, killing the prison warden and freeing more than 150 supporters, including 11 who had been arrested only a few days before. The brigade took control of the radio station in Luanda at 7 a.m. and announced their coup, calling themselves the MPLA Action Committee. The brigade asked citizens to show their support for the coup by demonstrating in front of the presidential palace. The Nitistas captured Bula and Dangereaux, generals loyal to Neto, but Neto had moved his base of operations from the palace to the Ministry of Defence in fear of such an uprising. Cuban troops retook the palace at Neto's request and marched to the radio station. After an hour of fighting, the Cubans succeeded and proceeded to the barracks of the 8th brigade, recaptured by 1:30 p.m. While the Cuban force captured the palace and radio station, the Nitistas kidnapped seven leaders within the government and the military, shooting and killing six.^[52] is the 147th day of the year (148th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the largest city and capital of Angola. ...

The government arrested tens of thousands of suspected Nitistas from May to November and tried them in secret courts overseen by Defense Minister Iko Carreira. Those who were found guilty, including Van-Dunem, Jacobo "Immortal Monster" Caetano, the head of the 8th Brigade, and political commissar Eduardo Evaristo, were then shot and buried in secret graves. The coup attempt had a lasting effect on Angola's foreign relations. Alves had opposed Neto's foreign policy of non-alignment, evolutionary socialism, and multiracialism, favoring stronger relations with the Soviet Union, which he wanted to grant military bases in Angola. While Cuban soldiers actively helped Neto put down the coup, Alves and Neto both believed the Soviet Union supported Neto's ouster. Raúl Castro sent an additional four thousand troops to prevent further dissension within the MPLA's ranks and met with Neto in August in a display of solidarity. In contrast, Neto's distrust in the Soviet leadership increased and relations with the USSR worsened.^[52] In December, the MPLA held is first party Congress and changed its name to the MPLA-PT. The Nitista coup took a toll on the MPLA's membership. In 1975, the MPLA reached 200,000 members. After the first party congress, that number decreased to 30,000.^{[53][54][51][55][56]} This article is about secret police as organizations. ... General Henrique Iko Teles Carreira (1933-2000) served as the first Defense Minister of Angola from 1975 to 1980 during the civil war. ... The Non-Aligned Movement, or NAM is an international organization of over 100 states which consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. ... Evolutionary socialism is a form of socialist theory which was originally developed by Eduard Bernstein. ... This article is about the Cuban politician. ...

Rise of dos Santos

The Soviets, trying to increase their influence in Luanda, began sending busts of Vladimir Lenin, a plane full of brochures with Brezhnev's speech at the February 1976 Party Congress, and two planes full of pamphlets denouncing Mao, to Angola. They sent so many busts that they ran out in the summer of 1976 and requested more from the CPSU Propaganda Department. Despite the best efforts of the Soviet propaganda machine and persistent lobbying by G. A. Zverev, the Soviet chargé d'affaires, Neto stood his ground, refusing to grant the permanent military bases the Soviets so desperately wanted in Angola. Neto allies like Defense Minister Iko Carreira and MPLA General Secretary Lúcio Lara also irked the Soviet leadership through their policies and personalities. With Alves out of the picture, the Soviet Union promoted Prime Minister Lopo do Nascimento, another 'internationalist', against Neto, a 'careerist,' for the MPLA's leadership.^[57] Neto moved swiftly to crush his adversary. The MPLA-PT's Central Committee met from December 6 to 9. The Committee concluded the meeting by firing Nascimento as both Prime Minister and as Secretary of the Politburo, the Director of National Television, and the Director of Jornal de Angola. Commander C. R. Dilolua resigned as Second Deputy Prime Minister and a member of the Politburo.^[58] Later that month the Committee abolished the positions of Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. Paving the way for dos Santos, Neto increased the ethnic composition of the MPLA-PT's political bureau as he replaced the hardline Old Guard with new blood.^[59] On July 5, 1979, Neto issued a decree requiring all citizens to serve in the military for three years upon turning the age of 18. The government gave a report to the UN estimating $293 million in property damage from South African attacks between 1976 and 1979, asking for compensation on August 3, 1979. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Cabinda, a Cabindan separatist rebel group, attacked a Cuban base near Tshiowa on August 11.^[60] Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the largest city and capital of Angola. ... Lenin redirects here. ... Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev  listen? ( Russian: Леони́д Ильи́ч Бре́жнев) ( December 19, 1906 – November 10, 1982) was effective ruler of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, though at first in partnership with others. ... Mao could refer to: Mao Zedong, (Mao Tse-Tung in Wade-Giles) leader of the Communist Party of China from 1935 to 1976. ... Arseni Grigoryevich Zverev (1900 - 1969), Russian Soviet administrator; Soviet finance minister 1938-1948, 1948-1960. ... In diplomacy, chargé daffaires (French for in charge of business), is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents: Chargés daffaires (ministres chargés daffaires), who were placed by the reglement of the Congress of Vienna in the fourth class of diplomatic agents, are heads of... Lúcio Lara (Tchiweka) was an Angolan nationalist and independence leader as part of the MPLA. Lara was a founding member of the MPLA and led the first MPLA members into Luanda on 8 November 1974. ... Lopo Fortunato Ferreira do Nascimento (born 1942) is an Angolan politician. ... Internationalism is a political movement which advocates a greater economic and political cooperation between nations for the benefit of all. ... Politburo is short for Political Bureau. ... is the 186th day of the year (187th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also: 1979 by Smashing Pumpkins. ... is the 215th day of the year (216th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also: 1979 by Smashing Pumpkins. ... The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Cabinda (Portuguese: Movimento Popular de Libertação de Cabinda; MPLC) is a militant separatist group fighting for the independence of Cabinda from Angola. ... is the 223rd day of the year (224th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

President Neto died from inoperable cancer in Moscow on September 10, 1979. Lara and Pascual Luvualo flew to Moscow and the MPLA declared 45 days of mourning. The government held his funeral at the Palace of the People on September 17. Many foreign dignitaries, including Organization of African Unity President William R. Tolbert, Jr. of Liberia, attended. The Central Committee of the MPLA unanimously voted in favor of José Eduardo dos Santos as President. He was sworn in on September 21. Under dos Santos' leadership, Angolan troops crossed the border into Namibia for the first time on October 31, going into Kavango. The next day, the governments of Angola, Zambia, and Zaire signed a non-aggression pact.^[60] For other uses, see Moscow (disambiguation). ... is the 253rd day of the year (254th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also: 1979 by Smashing Pumpkins. ... is the 260th day of the year (261st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... William Richard Tolbert, Jr. ... José Eduardo dos Santos (born August 28, 1942 in Luanda) is the current President, Head of Government, and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Angola. ... is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 304th day of the year (305th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Kavango people reside on the Namibian side of the Namibian-Angolan border. ... A non-aggression pact is an international treaty between two or more states, agreeing to avoid war or armed conflict between them even if they find themselves fighting third countries, or even if one is fighting allies of the other. ...

1980s

Main article: 1980s in Angola

SWAPO's and South Africa's operations (1978–1980)

In the 1980s, fighting spread outward from southeastern Angola, where most of the fighting had taken place in the 1970s, as the National Congolese Army (ANC) and SWAPO increased their activity. The South African government responded by sending troops back into Angola, intervening in the war from 1981 to 1987,^[20] prompting the Soviet Union to deliver massive amounts of military aid from 1981 to 1986. The USSR gave the Angolan government more than US$2 billion in aid in 1984.^[61] In 1981, newly elected United States President Ronald Reagan's U.S. assistant secretary of state for African affairs, Chester Crocker, developed a linkage policy, tying Namibian independence to Cuban withdrawal and peace in Angola.^[62][63] The South-West Africa Peoples Organisation (SWAPO) was founded, along with a number of other groups, as a liberation organisation: following the first world war, South-West Africa — formerly a German colony — was turned over to South Africa to rule as a mandate for the British. ... For the pop band, see Presidents of the United States of America. ... Reagan redirects here. ... Chester A. Crocker The policy of constructive engagement, by means of which the administration of former president Ronald Reagan sought to influence events in South Africa with the carrot of closer ties with the white-minority government in Pretoria rather than with the stick of economic sanctions, was the brainchild... ...

The South African military attacked insurgents in Cunene Province on May 12, 1980. The Angolan Ministry of Defense accused the South African government of wounding and killing civilians. Nine days later, the SADF attacked again, this time in Cuando-Cubango, and the MPLA threatened to respond militarily. The SADF launched a full-scale invasion of Angola through Cunene and Cuando-Cubango on June 7, destroying SWAPO's operational command headquarters on June 13, in what Prime Minister Botha described as a "shock attack". The Angolan government arrested 120 Angolans who were planning to set off explosives in Luanda, on June 24, foiling a plot purportedly orchestrated by the South African government. Three days later, the United Nations Security Council convened at the behest of Angola's ambassador to the UN, E. de Figuerido, and condemned South Africa's incursions into Angola. President Mobutu of Zaire also sided with the MPLA. The Angolan government recorded 529 instances in which South African forces violated Angola's territorial sovereignty between January and June 1980.^[64] is the 132nd day of the year (133rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1980 (MCMLXXX) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar). ... is the 158th day of the year (159th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 164th day of the year (165th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Pieter Willem Botha (January 12, 1916 – October 31, 2006), commonly known as PW and Die Groot Krokodil (Afrikaans for The Big Crocodile), was the prime minister of South Africa from 1978 to 1984 and the first executive state president from 1984 to 1989. ... is the 175th day of the year (176th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... “Security Council” redirects here. ...

Cuba increased its troop force in Angola from 35,000 in 1982 to 40,000 in 1985. South African forces tried to capture Lubango, capital of Huíla province, in Operation Askari in December 1983.^[62] Lubango is the capital city of the Angolan province of Huíla. ... Huíla is a province of Angola. ... Operation Askari was a military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF) during the South African Border War. ...

On