Einstein, in 1905, when he wrote the "Annus Mirabilis Papers"

The Annus Mirabilis Papers (from Latin, Annus mirabilis, for 'extraordinary year') are the papers of Albert Einstein published in the "Annalen der Physik" Scientific journal in 1905. These four articles contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The Annus Mirabilis is often called the "Miracle Year" in English, in German, the "Wunderjahr".^[1] Albert Einstein, ca. ... Albert Einstein, ca. ... 1905 (MCMV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar). ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... This page lists direct English translations of common Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and et cetera. ... Note: Albert Einstein is also the birth name of Albert Brooks. ... Annalen der Physik is one of the best-known and oldest (it was founded in 1799) physics journals worldwide. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... 1905 (MCMV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar). ... Modern physics may refer to: Quantum mechanics Theory of relativity 20th-century physics in general See also History of physics This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... Space has been an interest for philosophers and scientists for much of human history. ... Look up time in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

Background

At the time the papers were written, Einstein lacked substantial scientific reference materials. Additionally, scientific colleagues available to discuss his theories were few.^{[citation needed]} He worked as an examiner at the Patent Office in Bern, Switzerland. In addition to work, his wife, Mileva Marić, may have had some influence on Einstein's work but how much is unclear. It is speculated that, at the very least, she proofread many of his articles.^[2][3] Through these papers, Einstein tackles some of the era's most important physics questions and problems. In 1900, a lecture titled Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light, by Lord Kelvin, suggested that physics was unsatisfactory in the explanations of two phenomena: the Michelson-Morley experiment and black body radiation. As introduced, Special relativity provided an account for the results of the Michelson-Morley experiments. Einstein's theories for the photoelectric effect demonstrate some quantum mechanics, which also explain black body radiation. The word theory has a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. ... A patent office is a governmental or intergovernmental organisation which controls the issue of patents. ... Location within Switzerland The city of Bern, English traditionally Berne (Bernese German Bärn , German Bern , French Berne , Italian Berna , Romansh Berna ), is the Bundesstadt (administrative capital) of Switzerland, and is the fourth most populous Swiss city (after Zürich, Geneva and Basel). ... Mileva Marić (1875 - 1948) was a Serbian mathematician, and Albert Einsteins first wife. ... Year 1900 (MCM) was an exceptional common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar, but a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. ... William Thomson, Archbishop of York, has the same name as this man. ... The Michelson-Morley experiment, one of the most important and famous experiments in the history of physics, was performed in 1887 by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley at what is now Case Western Reserve University, and is considered by some to be the first strong evidence against the theory of... As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer wavelengths. ... Fig. ...

Papers

There is no doubt that Einstein's published works on Brownian motion, and special relativity deserved Nobel Prizes, but it was his work on the photoelectric effect which won him his Nobel Prize in 1921: "For services to theoretical physics and especially for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." The Nobel committee had waited patiently for experimental confirmation of special relativity; however none was forthcoming until the 1941 time dilation experiments of Rossi and Hall.^[4] Three different views of Brownian motion, with 32 steps, 256 steps, and 2048 steps denoted by progressively lighter colors. ... The special theory of relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. Some three centuries earlier, Galileos principle of relativity had stated that all uniform motion was relative, and that there was no absolute and well-defined state of rest... A diagram illustrating the emission of photoelectrons from a metal plate, requiring energy gained from an incoming photon to be more than the work function of the material. ... The Nobel Prizes (Swedish: ) are awards in physics, chemistry, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. ... Year 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for full calendar). ...

Photoelectric effect

The paper, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light",^[5] proposed the idea of energy quanta. This idea, motivated by Max Planck's earlier derivation of the law of black-body radiation, assumes that luminous energy can be absorbed or emitted only in discrete amounts, called quanta. Einstein states, Look up Heuristic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Prism splitting light Light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength that is visible to the eye (visible light) or, in a technical or scientific context, electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength[1]. The elementary particle that defines light is the photon. ... Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (April 23, 1858 – October 4, 1947) was a German physicist. ... As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer wavelengths. ... Radiant energy is the energy of electromagnetic waves. ... In physics, a quantum (plural: quanta) is an indivisible entity of energy. ...

Energy, during the propagation of a ray of light, is not continuously distributed over steadily increasing spaces, but it consists of a finite number of energy quanta localised at points in space, moving without dividing and capable of being absorbed or generated only as entities.

In explaining the photoelectric effect, the hypothesis that energy consists of discrete packets, as Einstein illustrates, can be directly applied to black bodies, as well. Prism splitting light Light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength that is visible to the eye (visible light) or, in a technical or scientific context, electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength[1]. The elementary particle that defines light is the photon. ... The word light is defined here as electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength; thus, X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light, microwaves, radio waves, and visible light are all forms of light. ... A spatial point is an entity with a location in space but no extent (volume, area or length). ... An entity is something that has a distinct, separate existence, though it need not be a material existence. ... A diagram illustrating the emission of photoelectrons from a metal plate, requiring energy gained from an incoming photon to be more than the work function of the material. ... As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer wavelengths. ...

The idea of light quanta contradicts the wave theory of light that follows naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior and, more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist. ... Maxwells equations are the set of four equations, attributed to James Clerk Maxwell, that describe the behavior of both the electric and magnetic fields, as well as their interactions with matter. ... Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field; a field encompassing all of space which exerts a force on particles that possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of those particles. ... The concept of infinite divisibility arises in different ways in philosophy, physics, economics, order theory (a branch of mathematics), and probability theory (also a branch of mathematics). ...

A profound formal difference exists between the theoretical concepts that physicists have formed about gases and other ponderable bodies, and Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic processes in so-called empty space. While we consider the state of a body to be completely determined by the positions and velocities of an indeed very large yet finite number of atoms and electrons, we make use of continuous spatial functions to determine the electromagnetic state of a volume of space, so that a finite number of quantities cannot be considered as sufficient for the complete determination of the electromagnetic state of space.

[... this] leads to contradictions when applied to the phenomena of emission and transformation of light.

According to the view that the incident light consists of energy quanta [...], the production of cathode rays by light can be conceived in the following way. The body's surface layer is penetrated by energy quanta whose energy is converted at least partially into kinetic energy of the electrons. The simplest conception is that a light quantum transfers its entire energy to a single electron [...]

Even after experiments confirmed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, his explanation was not universally accepted. Niels Bohr, in his 1922 Nobel address, stated, "The hypothesis of light-quanta is not able to throw light on the nature of radiation." A diagram illustrating the emission of photoelectrons from a metal plate, requiring energy gained from an incoming photon to be more than the work function of the material. ... Niels (Henrik David) Bohr (October 7, 1885 – November 18, 1962) was a Danish physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1922. ...

By 1921, when Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize and his work on photoelectricity was mentioned by name in the award citation, some physicists accepted that the equation (hf = Φ + E_k) was correct and light quanta were possible. In 1923, Arthur Compton's X-ray scattering experiment helped more of the scientific community to accept this formula. The theory of light quanta was a strong indicator of wave-particle duality, a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics.^[6] A complete picture of the theory of photoelectricity was realized after the maturity of quantum mechanics. Year 1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for full calendar). ... {{year nav|1939 1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ... Arthur Holly Compton (September 10, 1892 – March 15, 1962) won the Nobel Prize in Physics (1927) for discovery of the Compton effect named in his honor. ... In physics, Compton scattering or the Compton effect, is the decrease in energy (increase in wavelength) of an X-ray or gamma ray photon, when it interacts with matter. ... In physics, wave-particle duality holds that light and matter exhibit properties of both waves and of particles. ... Fig. ...

Brownian motion

It has been suggested that Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

The article "On the Motion Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid"^[7] delineated a stochastic model of Brownian motion. Image File history File links Please see the file description page for further information. ... Uber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme gefordete Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen, or On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquid, was a journal article authored by Albert Einstein and published in Annalen der... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Kinetic theory attempts to explain macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. ... In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is defined as transfer of thermal energy [1] Generally, heat is a form of energy transfer associated with the different motions of atoms, molecules and other particles that comprise matter when it is hot and when it is cold. ... Stationary can mean: Look up stationary in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A liquid will usually assume the shape of its container A liquid is one of the main states of matter. ... Stochastic, from the Greek stochos or goal, means of, relating to, or characterized by conjecture; conjectural; random. ... Three different views of Brownian motion, with 32 steps, 256 steps, and 2048 steps denoted by progressively lighter colors. ...

In this paper it will be shown that, according to the molecular kinetic theory of heat, bodies of a microscopically visible size suspended in liquids must, as a result of thermal molecular motions, perform motions of such magnitudes that they can be easily observed with a microscope. It is possible that the motions to be discussed here are identical with so-called Brownian molecular motion; however, the data available to me on the latter are so imprecise that I could not form a judgment on the question ...

Brownian motion generates expressions for the root mean square displacement of particles. Using the kinetic theory of fluids, which at the time was controversial, the article establishes the phenomenon, which was lacking a satisfactory explanation even decades after the first observation provided empirical evidence for the reality of the atom. It also lends credence to statistical mechanics, which had been controversial at that time, as well. Before this paper, atoms were recognized as a useful concept, but physicists and chemists debated whether atoms were real entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary microscope. Wilhelm Ostwald, one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told Arnold Sommerfeld that he had been convinced of the existence of atoms by Einstein's complete explanation of Brownian motion.^{[citation needed]} In mathematics, the root mean square or rms is a statistical measure of the magnitude of a varying quantity. ... In Newtonian mechanics, displacement is the vector that specifies the position of a point or a particle in reference to an origin or to a previous position. ... Properties In chemistry and physics, an atom (Greek ἄτομος or átomos meaning indivisible) is the smallest particle still characterizing a chemical element. ... Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force. ... Wilhelm Ostwald Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (commonly just Wilhelm Ostwald) (September 2, 1853 - April 4, 1932) was a German chemist. ... Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (December 5, 1868 in Königsberg, East Prussia – April 26, 1951 in Munich, Germany) was a German physicist who introduced the fine-structure constant in 1919. ...

Special relativity

Einstein's third paper that year, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"^[8] reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's Special theory of relativity. In electromagnetism, Maxwells equations are a set of equations, developed in the latter half of the nineteenth century by James Clerk Maxwell. ... A line showing the speed of light on a scale model of Earth and the Moon The speed of light in a vacuum is an important physical constant denoted by the letter c for constant or the Latin word celeritas meaning swiftness. ... Special relativity (SR) or the special theory of relativity is the physical theory published in 1905 by Albert Einstein. ...

The paper makes no reference to any works that may have led to its development, and mentions the name of only one other scientist, Hendrik Lorentz.^[9] While developing this paper, Einstein had written to his wife Mileva about "our work on relative motion", and this has led some to ask whether Mileva played a part in its development (as well as her involvement on other papers). This paper introduces a theory of time, distance, mass, and energy that was consistent with electromagnetism, but omitted the force of gravity. Painting of Hendrik Lorentz by Arnhemensis Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (July 18, 1853, Arnhem – February 4, 1928, Haarlem) was a Dutch physicist and the winner of the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on electromagnetic radiation. ... Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field; a field encompassing all of space which exerts a force on particles that possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of those particles. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ...

At the time, it was known that Maxwell's equations, when applied to moving bodies, led to asymmetries, and that it had not been possible to discover any motion of the Earth relative to the 'light medium'. Einstein puts forward two postulates to explain these observations. First, he applies the classic principle of relativity, which states that the laws of physics remain the same for any non-accelerating frame of reference (called an inertial reference frame), to the laws of electrodynamics and optics as well as mechanics. In the second postulate, Einstein proposes that the speed of light remains constant in all inertial frames of reference, independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. In general, the principle of relativity is the requirement that the laws of physics be the same for all observers. ... A frame of reference is a particular perspective from which the universe is observed. ... Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field, encompassing all of space, composed of the electric field and the magnetic field. ... Table of Opticks, 1728 Cyclopaedia Optics ( appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ...

Special relativity avoids an ever-present problem since the Michelson-Morley experiment, which had not detected a medium of conductance (or aether) for light waves unlike other known waves that require a medium (such as water or air). Einstein states, The Michelson-Morley experiment, one of the most important and famous experiments in the history of physics, was performed in 1887 by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley at what is now Case Western Reserve University, and is considered by some to be the first strong evidence against the theory of... A transmission medium is any material substance, such as fiber-optic cable, twisted-wire pair, coaxial cable, dielectric-slab waveguide, water, or air, that can be used for the propagation of signals, usually in the form of modulated radio, light, or acoustic waves, from one point to another. ... Look up aether, ether in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about waves in the most general scientific sense. ... Impact of a drop of water Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life[1]. It covers 71% of Earths surface. ... Layers of Atmosphere (NOAA) Air redirects here. ...

... the unsuccessful attempts to discover any motion of the earth relatively to the "light medium," suggest that the phenomena of electrodynamics as well as of mechanics possess no properties corresponding to the idea of absolute rest.

The speed of light is fixed, and thus not relative to the movement of the observer. This was impossible under Newtonian classical mechanics. Einstein argues, The luminiferous aether: it was hypothesised that the Earth moves through a medium of aether that carries light In the late 19th century luminiferous aether (light-bearing aether) was the term used to describe a medium for the propagation of light. ... Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field, encompassing all of space, composed of the electric field and the magnetic field. ... Mechanics (Greek ) is the branch of physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effect of the bodies on their environment. ... Rest in physics and in the technical sense of geometric mensuration denotes a particular relation between a pair of observers. ... Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science. ... Classical mechanics is a branch of physics which studies the deterministic motion of objects. ...

... the same laws of electrodynamics and optics will be valid for all frames of reference for which the equations of mechanics hold good. We will raise this conjecture (the purport of which will hereafter be called the "Principle of Relativity") to the status of a postulate, and also introduce another postulate, which is only apparently irreconcilable with the former, namely, that light is always propagated in empty space with a definite velocity c which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. These two postulates suffice for the attainment of a simple and consistent theory of the electrodynamics of moving bodies based on Maxwell's theory for stationary bodies. The introduction of a "luminiferous ether" will prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the view here to be developed will not require an "absolutely stationary space" provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic processes take place.

The theory [...] is based - like all electrodynamics - on the kinematics of the rigid body, since the assertions of any such theory have to do with the relationships between rigid bodies (systems of co-ordinates), clocks, and electromagnetic processes. Insufficient consideration of this circumstance lies at the root of the difficulties which the electrodynamics of moving bodies at present encounters.

It had previously been conjectured, by George Fitzgerald in 1894 and by Lorentz 1895, independent of each other, that the Michelson-Morley result could be accounted for if moving bodies were contracted in the direction of their motion. Some of the paper's core equations, the Lorentz transforms, had been published by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900), Hendrik Lorentz (1899, 1903, 1904) and Henri Poincaré (1905), in a development of Lorentz's 1904 paper. Einstein reveals the underlying causes for this geometrical oddity, which differs from the explanations given by FitzGerald, Larmor, and Lorentz, but similar in many respects to the reasons given by Poincaré (1905). See also list of optical topics. ... A frame of reference in physics is a set of axes which enable an observer to measure the aspect, position and motion of all points in a system relative to the reference frame. ... An equation is a mathematical statement, in symbols, that two things are the same (or equivalent). ... In mathematics, a conjecture is a mathematical statement which appears likely to be true, but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of mathematical logic. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. ... An emitter is any device used to emit any signal, beacon, light, odor, liquid, fragrance, or the like. ... The luminiferous aether: it was hypothesised that the Earth moves through a medium of aether that carries light In the late 19th century luminiferous aether (light-bearing aether) was the term used to describe a medium for the propagation of light. ... In physics, kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics concerned with describing the motions of objects without considering the factors that cause or affect the motion. ... In physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size in which deformation is neglected. ... In mathematics, a function space is a set of functions of a given kind from a set X to a set Y. It is called a space because in most applications, it is a topological space or/and a vector space. ... A Clock is any device that keeps time. ... Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field; a field encompassing all of space which exerts a force on particles that possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of those particles. ... George FitzGerald George Francis FitzGerald, or Fitzgerald, (3 August 1851 – 22 February 1901) was a professor of natural and experimental philosophy (i. ... 1894 (MDCCCXCIV) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... A Lorentz transformation (LT) is a linear transformation that preserves the spacetime interval between any two events in Minkowski space, while leaving the origin fixed (=rotation of Minkowski space). ... Sir Joseph Larmor (July 11, 1857 - May 19, 1942), an Irish physicist and mathematician, researched electricity, dynamics, and thermodynamics. ... Painting of Hendrik Lorentz by Arnhemensis Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (July 18, 1853, Arnhem – February 4, 1928, Haarlem) was a Dutch physicist and the winner of the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on electromagnetic radiation. ... Jules Henri Poincaré (April 29, 1854 – July 17, 1912) (IPA: [][1]) was one of Frances greatest mathematicians and theoretical physicists, and a philosopher of science. ...

His explanation arises from two axioms. First, Galileo's idea that the laws of nature should be the same for all observers that move with constant speed relative to each other. Einstein writes, KDFSAJFKASJDKFJASDKLJFDKLASJFLKJASKLFJLAKSJFLKSJALFKJSKLJFto the Sun-centered solar system which Galileo supported. ... The Laws of Nature are claimed in the United States Declaration of Independence to be the work of the Creator of unalienable rights identified as Natures God. ...

The laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not affected, whether these changes of state be referred to the one or the other of two systems of co-ordinates in uniform translatory motion.

The second is the rule that the speed of light is the same for every observer. A line showing the speed of light on a scale model of Earth and the Moon The speed of light in a vacuum is an important physical constant denoted by the letter c for constant or the Latin word celeritas meaning swiftness. ...

Any ray of light moves in the "stationary" system of co-ordinates with the determined velocity c, whether the ray be emitted by a stationary or by a moving body.

The theory, now called the "special theory of relativity" distinguishes it from his later general theory of relativity, which considers all observers to be equivalent. Special relativity at first met with disdain and even ridicule from some quarters since it abounds with apparent paradoxes, and violates "common sense". However, the self-consistency of special relativity, proven in 1908 by Hermann Minkowski, has been supported by an ever-increasing body of confirmatory experimental evidence. As a result, special relativity has come to be largely taken for granted in the scientific community. The special theory of relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. Some three centuries earlier, Galileos principle of relativity had stated that all uniform motion was relative, and that there was no absolute and well-defined state of rest... General relativity (GR) [also called the general theory of relativity (GTR) and general relativity theory (GRT)] is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915/16. ... Look up paradox in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hermann Minkowski. ...

Matter and energy equivalence

A fourth paper, "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?",^[10] was published on September 27 in Annalen der Physik, containing one of the most famous equations in the field of Physics: E=mc². Einstein considered the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies. Nevertheless, most scientists simply regarded the finding as a curiosity until the 1930s. September 27 is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Annalen der Physik is one of the best-known and oldest (it was founded in 1799) physics journals worldwide. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Mass-energy equivalence. ... The kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. ... Potential energy is the energy that is by virtue of the relative positions (configurations) of the objects within a physical system. ... The 1930s (years from 1930–1939) were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression, also known in Europe as the World Depression. ...

The paper is based on James Clerk Maxwell's and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's investigations and, in addition, the axioms of relativity, as Einstein states, James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist. ... Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (February 22, 1857 - January 1, 1894) was the German physicist and mechanician for whom the hertz, an SI unit, is named. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

The results of the previous investigation lead to a very interesting conclusion, which is here to be deduced.

[The previous investigation was based] on the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space, together with the Maxwellian expression for the electromagnetic energy of space ...

The laws by which the states of physical systems alter are independent of the alternative, to which of two systems of coordinates, in uniform motion of parallel translation relatively to each other, these alterations of state are referred (principle of relativity).

The equation sets forth that energy of a body at rest (E) equals its mass (m) times the speed of light (c) squared, or E = mc². Space has been an interest for philosophers and scientists for much of human history. ...

If a body gives off the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by L/c². The fact that the energy withdrawn from the body becomes energy of radiation evidently makes no difference, so that we are led to the more general conclusion that

The mass of a body is a measure of its energy-content; if the energy changes by L, the mass changes in the same sense by L/9 × 10²⁰, the energy being measured in ergs, and the mass in grammes.

[...]

If the theory corresponds to the facts, radiation conveys inertia between the emitting and absorbing bodies.

The mass-energy relation can be used to predict how much energy will be released or consumed by chemical and nuclear reactions; one simply measures the mass of all constituents and products and multiplies the difference by c². The result shows how much energy will be released or consumed, usually in the form of light or heat. When applied to certain nuclear reactions, the equation shows that an extraordinarily large amount of energy will be released, much larger than in the combustion of chemical explosives, where the mass difference is hardly measurable at all. This explains why nuclear weapons produce such phenomenal amounts of energy, as they release binding energy during nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. An emitter is any device used to emit any signal, beacon, light, odor, liquid, fragrance, or the like. ... In high energy physics experiments, an absorber is a block of material used to absorb some of the energy of an incident particle. ... Mass-energy equivalence is where mass has an energy equivalence, and energy has a mass equivalence. ... A chemical reaction occurs when vapours of hydrogen chloride in a beaker and ammonia in a test tube meet to form a cloud of a new substance, ammonium chloride A chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical substances. ... In nuclear physics, a nuclear reaction is a process in which two nuclei or nuclear particles collide, to produce products different to the initial products. ... Electromagnetic radiation can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. ... In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is defined as transfer of thermal energy [1] Generally, heat is a form of energy transfer associated with the different motions of atoms, molecules and other particles that comprise matter when it is hot and when it is cold. ... This article is concerned solely with chemical explosives. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... Binding energy is the energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts. ... For the generation of electrical power by fission, see Nuclear power plant An induced nuclear fission event. ... The deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reaction is considered the most promising for producing fusion power. ...

Commemoration

The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) resolved to commemorate the 100th year of the publication of Einstein's extensive work in 1905 as the 'World Year of Physics 2005'. This was subsequently endorsed by both the United Nations and the United States Congress. The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) is an international non-governmental organization devoted to the advancement of Physics. ... 1905 (MCMV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar). ... The year 2005 has been named the World Year of Physics in recognition of the 100th anniversary of Albert Einsteins Miracle Year, in which he published three landmark papers, and the subsequent advances in the field of physics. ... The foundation of the U.N. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ... Type Bicameralism Houses Senate House of Representatives United States Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, D, since January 4, 2007 Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, D, since January 4, 2007 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political groups (as of November 7, 2006 elections) Democratic Party Republican...

Further reading

• Stachel, John, et. al., "Einstein's Miraculous Year". Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-691-05938-1
• Renn, Jürgen, and Dieter Hoffmann, "1905 — a miraculous year". 2005 J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 38 S437-S448 (Max Planck Institute for the History of Science) [Issue 9 (14 May 2005)]

External links

• On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies

References

Einstein's work

• "On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light". Translation from the German article, "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik, 17:132-148 (1905)
• "On the motion of small particles suspended in liquids at rest required by the molecular-kinetic theory of heat". Translation from the German article, "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen", Annalen der Physik, 17:549-560. (1905)

The following two papers appear in The Principle of Relativity, London: Methuen and Company, Ltd. (1923) in English translations by W. Perrett and G.B. Jeffery from the German Das Relativatsprinzip, Tuebner, 4th ed., (1922). Annalen der Physik is one of the best-known and oldest (it was founded in 1799) physics journals worldwide. ...

• "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". (fourmilab.ch web site): Translation from the German article: "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik. 17:891-921. (June 30, 1905)
• "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?". (fourmilab.ch web site): Translation from the German article: "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energiegehalt abhängig?", Annalen der Physik, 18:639-641. (September 27, 1905)

Other citations

1. ^ "Annalen der Physik - Factbites" (2005), Factbites.com, web: Factbites-Annalen: about annus mirabilis as "miraculous year" in English, or German "Wunderjahr".
2. ^ "Einstein's Wife : The Mileva Question". Oregon Public Broadcasting, 2003 Summary: There is at least one credible source, Abram Joffe, who indicates that Mileva collaborated with Albert on at least some of the 1905 papers. Joffe stated that he saw the names of two authors on the 1905 papers. The letters Mileva exchanged with Albert and other friends lends support to this assertion, also. The editors of The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein noted, though, that they simply do not know for certain if Mileva assisted Albert.
3. ^ Calaprice, Alice, "The Einstein almanac". Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md. 2005.
4. ^ Rossi, Bruno; Hall, David B. (February 1, 1941). "Variation of the Rate of Decay of Mesotrons with Momentum". Physical Review 59 (3): 223–228. DOI:10.1103/PhysRev.59.223. Retrieved on 2006-10-01. 
5. ^ "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt"
6. ^ Physical systems can display both wave-like and particle-like properties
7. ^ "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen"
8. ^ "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", published on June 30, 1905
9. ^ Regarding the reference to Hendrik Lorentz in Special Theory of Relativity; This upset Henri Poincaré so much that he never mentioned Einstein in any of his papers, and Einstein retaliated, mentioning Poincaré only once; see relativity priority dispute
10. ^ "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?"

Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (Абра́м Фёдорович Ио́ффе, October 29, 1880 (new style) – October 14, 1960) was a prominent Soviet/Russian physicist. ... February 1 is the 32nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... For the movie, see 1941 (film). ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... October 1 is the 274th day of the year (275th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Uber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme gefordete Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen, or On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquid, was a journal article authored by Albert Einstein and published in Annalen der... June 30 is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 184 days remaining. ... Jules Henri Poincaré (April 29, 1854 – July 17, 1912) (IPA: [][1]) was one of Frances greatest mathematicians and theoretical physicists, and a philosopher of science. ... Albert Einstein presented the theories of Special Relativity and General Relativity in groundbreaking publications that did not include references to the work of others. ...

See also

• 1905
• Annus mirabilis