Antivenin (or antivenom, or antivenene) is a biological product used in the treatment of venomous bites or stings. It is created by injecting a small amount of the targeted venom into an animal such as a horse, sheep, goat, or rabbit; the subject animal will suffer an immune response to the venom, producing antibodies against the venom's active molecule which can then be harvested from the animal's blood and used to treat envenomation in others. Internationally, Snake Venom Antitoxin must carefully meet the standards of Pharmacopoeia and the World Health Organization (WHO). [1] It has been suggested that Snake poison be merged into this article or section. ... Binomial name Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758 The horse (Equus caballus, sometimes seen as a subspecies of the Wild Horse, Equus ferus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one of ten modern species of the genus Equus. ... Species See text. ... Species See Species and subspecies The goat is a mammal in the genus Capra, which consists of nine species: the Ibex, the West Caucasian Tur, the East Caucasian Tur, the Markhor, and the Wild Goat. ... Genera Pentalagus Bunolagus Nesolagus Romerolagus Brachylagus Sylvilagus Oryctolagus Poelagus Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world. ... A request has been made on Wikipedia for this article to be deleted in accordance with the deletion policy. ... Schematic of antibody binding to an antigen An antibody or immunoglobulin is a large Y-shaped protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. ...

Therapeutic use

The principle of antivenin is based on that of vaccines, developed by Louis Pasteur, however instead of inducing immunity in the patient directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is transfused into the patient. The first antivenin for snakes (called an anti-ophidic serum) was developed by Albert Calmette, a French scientist of the Pasteur Institute working at its Indochine branch in 1895, against the Indian Cobra (Naja naja). Vital Brazil, a Brazilian scientist developed in 1901 the first monovalent and polyvalent antivenins for Central and South American Crotalus, Bothrops and Elaps genera, as well as for certain species of venomous spiders, scorpions, and frogs. They were all developed in a Brazilian institution, the Instituto Butantan, located in São Paulo, Brazil. A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to establish immunity to a disease. ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist. ... Donating blood Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood or blood-based products from one person into the circulatory system of another. ... Léon Charles Albert Calmette (July 12, 1863 – October 29, 1933) was a French physician, bacteriologist and immunologist, and an important officer of the Pasteur Institute. ... The Pasteur Institute (French: Institut Pasteur) is a French non-profit private foundation dedicated to the study of biology, microorganisms, diseases and vaccines. ... Indochine has several meanings: Indochine is the French name for Indochina, or sometimes more specifically, the old colony of French Indochina. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Vital Brazil Mineiro da Campanha (b. ... 1901 (MCMI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Synonyms Crotalus - Linnaeus, 1758 Crotalophorus - Houttuyn, 1764 Caudisona - Laurenti, 1768 Crotalinus - Rafinesque, 1815 Crotalurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Crotulurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Uropsophus - Wagler, 1830 Urocrotalon - Fitzinger, 1843 Aploaspis - Cope, 1867 Aechmophrys - Coues In Wheeler, 1875 Haploaspis - Cope, 1883 Paracrotalus - Reuss, 1930[1] Common names: rattlesnakes. ... Bothrops is a genus of highly venomous pit vipers found in Central America, South America and the Caribbean. ... The Elapidae, or elapids, are a family of highly venomous snakes found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. ... Diversity 111 families, 40,000 species Suborders Mesothelae Mygalomorphae Araneomorphae  See table of families Closeup image of a Wolf Spider Wikispecies has information related to: Spiders Spiders are predatory invertebrate animals with two body segments, eight legs, no chewing mouth parts and no wings. ... Superfamilies Pseudochactoidea Buthoidea Chaeriloidea Chactoidea Iuroidea Scorpionoidea See classification for families. ... Distribution of frogs (in black) Suborders Archaeobatrachia Mesobatrachia Neobatrachia - List of Anuran families The frog is an amphibian in the order Anura (meaning tail-less from Greek an-, without + oura, tail), formerly referred to as Salientia (Latin saltare, to jump). ... Instituto Butantan is a Brazilian biomedical research center affiliated to the São Paulo State Secretary of Health. ... Landmark buildings Edifício Italia (at left) and Copan (curved façade at center), in São Paulo Downtown. ...

Antivenins can be classified into monovalent (when they are effective against a given species' venom) or polyvalent (when they are effective against a range of species, or several different species at the same time). Antivenins for therapeutic use are often preserved as freeze-dried ampoules, but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. (They are not immediately inactivated by heat, so a minor gap in the cold chain is not disastrous.) The majority of antivenins (including all snake antivenins) are administered intravenously, however stonefish and red-back spider antivenins are given intramuscularly. The intramuscular route has been questioned in some situations as not uniformly effective.^[1] Freeze drying (also known as Lyophilization) is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material, or to make the material more convenient for transport. ... Pharmaceutical ampoules An ampoule is a small glass vial which is hermetically sealed by melting the thin top usually with a blowtorch flame after filling, and is most commonly used as a container for hypodermic injection solutions (eg. ... Cold Chain is the term used to refer to a temperature-controlled supply chain. ... Binomial name Synanceia verrucosa Bloch & Schneider, 1801 Stonefish (Andaman Sea) The stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa, Bloch & Schneider, 1801), also known as the reef stonefish or dornorn, is a carnivorous ray-finned fish with venomous spines that lives on the sea bed, camouflaged as a rock. ... Binomial name Latrodectus hasselti Thorell, 1870 Red-back spider sitting in its web. ...

Antivenins bind to and neutralize the venom, halting further damage, but do not reverse damage already done. Thus, they should be administered as soon as possible after the venom has been injected, but are of some benefit as long as venom is present in the body. Since the advent of antivenins, some bites which were previously inevitably fatal have become only rarely fatal provided that the antivenin is administered soon enough.

Antivenins are purified by several processes but will still contain other serum proteins that can act as antigens. Some individuals may react to the antivenin with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction (anaphylaxis) or a delayed hypersensitivity (serum sickness) reaction and antivenin should, therefore, be used with caution. Despite this caution, antivenin is typically the sole effective treatment for a life-threatening condition, and once the precautions for managing these reactions are in place, an anaphylactoid reaction is not grounds to refuse to give antivenin if otherwise indicated. Although it is a popular myth that a person allergic to horses "cannot" be given antivenin, the side effects are manageable, and antivenin should be given as rapidly as the side effects can be managed.^[2] A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... An antigen is a substance that stimulates an immune response, especially the production of antibodies. ... }} In medicine, anaphylaxis is a severe and rapid multi-system allergic reaction. ... Serum sickness is a reaction to an antiserum derived from an animal source. ...

Sheep are generally used in preference over horses now, however, as the potential for adverse immunological responses in humans from sheep derived antibodies is generally somewhat less than that from horse derived antibodies. The use of horses to raise antibodies, in Australia at least, where a large amount of anti-venom research has been undertaken (by Sutherland and others for example), has been attributed to the research base orginally having been comprised of a large number of veterinary officers. These vets had, in many cases, returned from taking part in the Boer and First World Wars and were generally experienced with horses (eg: cavalry). The large animal vets were similarly oriented given the use of horses as a prime source of motive power and transport, especially in the rural setting. The overall experience with horses naturally made them the preferred subject in which to raise antibodies. It was not until later that the immuno-reactivity of certain horse serum proteins was assessed to be sufficiently problematic that alternatives in which to raise antibodies were investigated.

Natural and acquired immunity

Although individuals can vary in their physiopathological response and sensitivity to animal venoms, there is no natural immunity to them in humans. Some ophiophagic animals are immune to the venoms produced by some species of venomous snakes, by the presence of antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic factors in their blood. These animals include King snakes, opossums and hedgehogs. Ophiophagy (snake eating) is a specialized form of feeding or alimentary behavior of animals which hunt and eat snakes. ... Species Lampropeltis alterna Lampropeltis calligaster Lampropeltis getula Lampropeltis mexicana Lampropeltis pyromelana Lampropeltis ruthveni Lampropeltis triangulum Lampropeltis zonata The genus Lampropeltis of colubrid snakes includes the King snakes and also the milk snake. ... This article or section should be merged with Virginia_opossum The word opossum (usually pronounced without the leading O, or with only a very slight schwa) refers either to the Virginia Opossum in particular, or more generally to any of the other marsupials of magnorder Ameridelphia. ... Genera Atelerix Erinaceus Hemiechinus Mesechinus Paraechinus A hedgehog is any of the small spiny mammals of the subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Erinaceomorpha. ...

It is quite possible to immunize a person directly with small and graded doses of venom rather than an animal. According to Greek mythology, King Mithridates did this in order to protect himself against attempts of poisoning, therefore this procedure is often called mithridatization. However, unlike a vaccination against disease which must only produce a latent immunity that can be roused in case of infection, to neutralize a sudden and large dose of venom requires maintaining a high level of circulating antibody (a hyperimmunized state), through repeated venom injections (typically every 21 days). The long-term health effects of this process have not been studied. For some large snakes, the total amount of antibody it is possible to maintain in one human being is not enough to neutralize one envenomation. Further, cytotoxic venom components can cause pain and minor scarring at the immunization site. Finally, the resistance is specific to the particular venom used; maintaining resistance to a variety of venoms requires multiple monthly venom injections. Thus, there is no practical purpose or favorable cost/benefit ratio for this, except for people like zoo handlers, researchers, and circus artists who deal closely with venomous animals. Mithridatization has been tried with success in Australia and Brazil and total immunity has been achieved even to multiple bites of extremely venomous cobras and pit vipers. Starting in 1950, Bill Haast successfully immunized himself to the venoms of Cape, Indian and King cobras. The bust of Zeus found at Otricoli (Sala Rotonda, Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican) Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and their own cult and ritual practices. ... A silver coin depicting Mithradates VI of Pontus. ... The skull and crossbones symbol traditionally used to label a poisonous substance. ... Mithridatization is the practice of protecting oneself against a poison by gradually self-administering non-lethal amounts. ... Vaccination is the process of administering weakened or dead pathogens to a healthy person or animal, with the intent of conferring immunity against a targeted form of a related disease agent. ... Immunity is medical term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. ... An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. ... Cytotoxicity is the quality of being poisonous to cells. ... Giraffes in Sydneys Taronga Zoo Zoo redirects here. ... William E. Bill Haast (b. ... The Cape Cobra (Naja nivea) is a moderately sized cobra inhabiting the arid regions of South Africa. ... Binomial name Ophiophagus hannah Cantor, 1836 The King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the longest of the venomous land snakes, growing up to 18. ...

Because neurotoxic venoms must travel further in the body to do harm, and are produced in smaller quantities, it is easier to develop resistance to them than directly cytotoxic venoms (such as those of most Vipers) that are injected in large quantity and do damage immediately upon injection. The term neurotoxic is used to describe a substance, condition or state that damages the nervous system and / or brain, usually by killing neurons. ... Subfamilies Crotalinae (Pit Vipers) Viperinae (Vipers) The Viperidae family is made up of two subfamilies: Crotalinae (Pit Vipers) Viperinae (Vipers) Categories: Stub | Snakes ...

Availability of antivenins

Antivenins have been developed for the venoms associated with the following animals:

Spiders

• Funnel web spider antivenin: Sydney funnel-web spider, Australia
• Soro antiaracnidico: Brazilian wandering spider, Brazil
• Soro antiloxoscelico: Recluse spider, Brazil
• Suero antiloxoscelico: Chilean recluse, Peru
• Aracmyn: All species of Loxosceles and Latrodectus, Mexico
• Redback spider antivenin: Red-back spider, Australia
• Black widow antivenin: Black widow spider, USA
• SAIMR Spider antivenin: Button spider, South Africa
• Anti Latrodectus antivenin: Black widow spider, Argentina

Binomial name Atrax robustus Pickard-Cambridge, 1877 The Sydney funnel-web spider, also called a funnel-web tarantula, (Atrax robustus) is regarded by some to be the most dangerous spider in the world. ... Species The Brazilian wandering spider (Phoneutria spp. ... Genera Loxosceles Sicarius The recluse spiders (family Sicariidae) comprise two genera and 122 species [1], best known being the Brown recluse spider. ... Binomial name Loxosceles laeta (Nicolet, 1849) The Chilean recluse spider is a venomous spider, Loxosceles laeta, of the family Sicariidae (formerly of the family Loxoscelidae). ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... The scientific term for the widow spider is a member of the spider genus Latrodectus. ... Binomial name Latrodectus hasselti Thorell, 1870 Red-back spider sitting in its web. ... The black widow spider (Latrodectus spp. ... Species Approx. ... The black widow spider (Latrodectus spp. ...

Acarids

• Tick antivenin: Paralysis tick, Australia

Binomial name Ixodes holocyclus , The Paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus, is one of about 75 species of Australian tick fauna and is considered the most medically important. ...

Insects

• Soro antilonomico: Lonomia oblique caterpillar, Brazil

Species Lonomia obliqua Walker, 1855 many others The genus Lonomia is a moderate-sized group of fairly cryptic saturniid moths from South America, famous not for the adults, but for their amazingly venomous caterpillars, which are responsible for a few deaths each year, especially in southern Brazil, and the subject...

Scorpions

• Alacramyn: Centruroides limpidus, C. noxius, C. suffusus, Mexico
• Suero Antialacran: Centruroides limpidus, C. noxius, C. suffusus, Mexico
• Tunisian polyvalent antivenin: All Iranian scorpions, Tunisia
• Anti-Scorpion Venom Serum I.P.(AScVS): Indian red scorpion, India
• Anti-scorpionique: Androctonus spp., Buthus spp., Algeria
• Scorpion antivenin: Black scorpion, Buthus occitanus, Morocco
• Soro antiescorpionico: Tityus spp., Brazil
• SAIMR scorpion antivenin: Parabuthus spp., South Africa

Marine animals

• CSL box jellyfish antivenin: Box jellyfish, Australia
• CSL stonefish antivenin: Stonefish, Australia

Families see text Jellyfish net enclosure at Ellis Beach, Queensland Box jellyfish are water-dwelling invertebrates belonging to the class Cubozoa, named for their cube-shaped medusae. ... Binomial name Synanceia verrucosa Bloch & Schneider, 1801 Stonefish (Andaman Sea) The stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa, Bloch & Schneider, 1801), also known as the reef stonefish or dornorn, is a carnivorous ray-finned fish with venomous spines that lives on the sea bed, camouflaged as a rock. ...

Snakes

• Death adder antivenin: Death adder, Australia
• Taipan antivenin: Taipan, Australia
• Black snake antivenin: Pseudechis spp. Australia.
• Tiger snake antivenin: Australian copperheads, Tiger snakes, Pseudechis spp., Rough scaled snake. Australia
• Brown snake antivenin: Brown snakes. Australia
• Polyvalent snake antivenin: Many Australian snakes. Australia
• Sea snake antivenin: Sea snakes, Australia
• Vipera tab: Vipera spp. USA
• Polyvalent crotalid antivenin (Cro-Fab): Rattlesnakes, USA
• Soro antibotropicocrotalico: Pit vipers and Rattlesnakes, Brazil
• Antielapidico: Coral snakes, Brazil
• Soro anti-elapidico: Coral snakes, Brazil
• SAIMR polyvalent antivenin: Mambas, Cobras, Rinkhals, Puff adders (Unsuitable small adders: B. worthingtoni, B. atropos, B. caudalis, B. cornuta, B. heraldica, B. inornata, B. peringueyi, B. schneideri, B. xeropaga), South Africa^[3]
• SAIMR echis antivenin: Saw-scaled vipers, South Africa
• SAIMR Boomslang antivenin: Boomslang, South Africa
• Panamerican serum: anticoral polyvalent serum: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Anticoral: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Anti-mipartitus antivenin: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Anticoral monovalent: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Antimicrurus: Coral snakes, Argentina
• Coralmyn: Coral snakes, Mexico
• Anti micruricoscorales: Coral snakes, Colombia

No antivenin is yet available against Tetrodotoxin, produced by the blowfish. Species Acanthophis antarcticus Acanthophis praelongus Acanthophis pyrrhus Acanthophis hawkei Acanthophis wellsei The death adders are a group of three or five species of snakes native to the Australian continent. ... This article is about the Australian snake. ... The king brown snakes is the common name for the family Pseudechis. ... Species An Australian copperhead is any of three closely related species of snake in the genus Austrelaps. ... Species Notechis scutatus Notechis ater The tiger snakes are two species of highly venomous snake found in Australia. ... The king brown snakes is the common name for the family Pseudechis. ... Pseudonaja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes known commonly as brown snakes. ... Genus Aipysurus Amydocephalus Acalyptophis Astrotia Enhydrina Ephalophis Hydrelaps Hydrophis Kerilia Kolpophis Lapemis Parahydrophis Pelamis Thalassophina Thalassophis Laticauda Sea snakes of several different species belong to a group related to the cobras but are aquatic rather than land dwelling. ... Synonyms Vipera - Laurenti, 1768 Pelias - Merrem, 1820 Chersea - Fleming, 1822 Rhinaspis - Bonaparte, 1834 Rhinechis - Fitzinger, 1843 Echidnoides - Mauduyt, 1844 Mesocoronis - Reuss, 1927 Teleovipera - Reuss, 1927 Acridophaga - Reuss, 1927 Mesovipera - Reuss, 1927 Mesohoronis - Reuss, 1927 Mesohorinis - Reuss, 1927 Latastea - Reuss, 1929 Tzarevcsya - Reuss, 1929 Latasteopara - Reuss, 1935[1] Common names: Palaearctic... Species 27 species; see list of rattlesnake species and subspecies. ... Synonyms Crotalini - Oppel, 1811 Crotales - Cuvier, 1817 Crotalidae - Gay, 1825 Crotaloidae - Fitzinger, 1826 Cophiadae - Boie, 1827 Crotaloidei - Eichwald, 1831 Crotalina - Bonaparte, 1831 Bothrophes - Fitzinger, 1843 Crotalinae - Cope, 1860 Teleuraspides - Cope, 1871 Crotalida - Strauch, 1873 Bothrophera - Garman, 1884 Cophiinae - Cope, 1895 Lachesinae - Cope, 1900 Lachesinii - Smith, Smith & Sawin, 1977 Agkistrodontinii - Hoge... Species 27 species; see list of rattlesnake species and subspecies. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species - Eastern green mamba - Jamesons mamba - Black mamba - Western green mamba For other uses, see Mamba (disambiguation). ... Naja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes. ... Species (Gaboon Viper) (Rhinoceros Viper) The Bitis genus of vipers consists of sixteen species. ... Binomial name Bitis atropos (Linnaeus, 1758) Synonyms Coluber atropos - Linnaeus, 1754 [Coluber] Atropos - Linnaeus, 1758 Cobra Atropos - Laurenti, 1768 Vipera Atropos - Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 [Vipera (Echidna)] Atropos - Merrem, 1820 Vipera montana - A. Smith, 1826 [Echidna] Atropos - Wagler, 1830 Clotho [(Bitis)] Atropos - Gray, 1842 E[chidna]. ocellata - Tschudi, 1845 Calechidna ocellata... Binomial name Bitis caudalis (Smith, 1839) Synonyms Vipera ocellata - A. Smith, 1838 Vipera (Cerates) caudalis - A. Smith, 1839 Vipera caudalis - A. Smith, 1839 Cerastes caudalis - Gray, 1842 Vipera caudalis - Jan, 1859 V[ipera]. (Cerastes) caudalis - Jan, 1863 Bitis caudalis - Boulenger, 1896 Cobra caudalis - Mertens, 1937 Bitis caudalis caudalis - Mertens, 1955... Binomial name Bitis cornuta (Daudin, 1803) Synonyms Vipera cornuta - Daudin, 1803 Vipera armata - A. Smith, 1826 Vip[era]. lophophris - Cuvier, 1829 Vip[era]. lophophrys - Wagler, 1830 Vipera Lophophris - Gray, 1831 Cerastes cornuta - Gray, 1842 Vipera [Echidna] atropoides - A. Smith, 1846 Vipera atropoides - A. Smith, 1846 Clotho cornuta - Gray, 1849 Cerastes... Binomial name Bitis heraldica (Bocage, 1889) Synonyms Vipera heraldica - Bocage, 1889 Bitis peringueyi - Boulenger, 1896 Bitis heraldica - Betherncourt-Ferreira, 1898[1] Common names: Angolan adder,[2][3] Bocages horned adder. ... Binomial name Bitis inornata (Smith, 1838) Synonyms Echidna inornata - A. Smith, 1838 Clotho ?inornata - Gray, 1849 Vipera inornata - Strauch, 1869 Bitis inornata - Boulenger, 1896 Bitis cornuta inornata - Underwood, 1968 B[itis]. inornata - Branch, 1991[1] Common names: plain mountain adder, hornless adder. ... Binomial name Bitis peringueyi (Boulenger, 1888) Synonyms Vipera Peringueyi - Boulenger, 1888 Bitis peringueyi - Boulenger, 1896 Bitis peringueyi - Golay et al. ... Binomial name Bitis schneideri (Boettger, 1886) Synonyms Vipera Schneideri - Boettger, 1886 Bitis caudalis paucisquamatis - Mertens, 1954 Bitis paucisquamata - FitzSimons, 1962 Bitis caudalis paucisquamata - Klemmer, 1963 Bitis paucisquamatis - FitzSimons, 1966 Bitis schneideri - Haacke, 1975[1] Common names: Namaqua dwarf adder,[2][3] spotted dwarf adder,[2] Schneiders adder. ... Binomial name Bitis xeropaga Haacke, 1975 Synonyms Bitis peringueyi - Nieden, 1913 Bitis caudalis caudalis - Mertens, 1958 Bitis xeropaga - Haacke, 1975[1] Common names: Desert mountain adder. ... Synonyms Echis - Merrem, 1820 Toxicoa - Gray, 1849 Turanechis - Cherlin, 1990[1] Common names: saw-scaled vipers, carpet vipers. ... Binomial name Dispholidus typus (Smith, 1829) A boomslang, Dispholidus typus is a large, venomous colubrid snake native to sub-Saharan Africa. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Species Over 65, see article. ... Tetrodotoxin (anhydrotetrodotoxin 4-epitetrodotoxin, tetrodonic acid, TTX) is a potent neurotoxin, which blocks action potentials in nerves by binding to the pores of the voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve cell membranes. ... Genera Amblyrhynchotes Arothron Auriglobus Canthigaster Carinotetraodon Chelonodon Colomesus Contusus Ephippion Feroxodon Fugu Gastrophysus Javichthys Lagocephalus Liosaccus Marilyna Monotretus Omegaphora Pelagocephalus Polyspina Reicheltia Sphoeroides Takifugu Tetractenos Tetraodon Torquigener Tylerius Xenopterus For species see Genera articles. ...

Antivenin sources

The following groups assist in locating antivenins:

• USA, Miami, Florida: The Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Anti-Venin Bank: Emergency: 1-786-336-6600 available 24 hours. A list of available antivenins is available at [2].

• More information about the bank is available at [3]
• USA, Oklahoma: Antivenin index in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (1-405-271-5454) maintains a 24-hour hotline to help locate rare antivenins.
• USA, Colorado: Poisondex central office in Denver, Colorado, USA (1-800-332-3073).
• Australia: CSL Limited, Parkville, Victoria.
• Asia: Haffkine Biopharmaceutical Corporation, Parel, Bombay, India.
• Africa: South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa.
• Brazil: Instituto Butantan, São Paulo

Official language(s) None Capital Oklahoma City Largest city Oklahoma City Area  Ranked 20th  - Total 69,960 sq mi (181,196 km²)  - Width 230 miles (370 km)  - Length 298 miles (480 km)  - % water 1. ... Downtown Oklahoma City The State Capitol of Oklahoma From The South Motto: Nickname: Capital of the New Century Founded 1889 Incorporated County Oklahoma County Cleveland County Canadian County Borough {{{borough}}} Parrish {{{parrish}}} Mayor Mick Cornett Area  - Total  - Water 1,608. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles. ... Nickname: The Mile-High City Location of Denver in Colorado Coordinates: Country United States State Colorado City-County Denver (coextensive) Founded November 22, 1858 Incorporated November 7, 1861 Mayor John Hickenlooper (D) Area    - City 401. ... CSL Limited is an Australian-based manufacturer of medical products. ... An inner northern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, bordered by North Melbourne to the south-west, Carlton and Carlton North to the south and east, Brunswick to the north, and Flemington to the west. ... Capital Melbourne Government Const. ... World map showing the location of Asia. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa. ... City motto: Unity in Development Province Gauteng Mayor Amos Masondo Area  - % water 1,644 km² 0. ... Instituto Butantan is a Brazilian biomedical research center affiliated to the São Paulo State Secretary of Health. ... The title of this article contains the character ã. Where it is unavailable or not desired, the name may be represented as Sao Paulo, Sao Paolo or Saint Paul. ...

References

2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining. ...

External links

• Snakebite. eMedicine.
• New antivenom could save more snakebite victims