An appeal to authority or argument by authority is a type of argument in logic consisting on basing the truth value of an assertion on the authority, knowledge, expertise, or position of the person asserting it. It is also known as argument from authority, argumentum ad verecundiam (Latin: argument to respect) or ipse dixit (Latin: he himself said it). It is one method of obtaining propositional knowledge, but a fallacy in regard to logic, because the validity of a claim does not follow from the credibility of the source. The corresponding reverse case would be an ad hominem attack: to imply that the claim is false because the asserter lacks authority or is otherwise objectionable in some way. In logic, an argument is a set of statements, consisting of a number of premises, a number of inferences, and a conclusion, which is said to have the following property: if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true or highly likely to be true. ... Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... This article is about authority as a concept. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Ipsedixitism is the pejorative term for an unsupported rhetorical assertion; the term in Logic for a missing argument. ... Propositional knowledge or declarative knowledge is knowledge that some proposition is either true or false. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Fallacy. ... Look up ad hominem in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

On the other hand, there is no fallacy involved in simply arguing that the assertion made by an authority is true, in contrast to claiming that the authority is infallible in principle and can hence be exempted from criticism: It can be true, the truth can merely not be proven, or made probable by attributing it to the authority, and the assumption that the assertion was true might be subject to criticism and turn out to have actually been wrong. If a criticism appears that contradicts the authority's statement, then merely the fact that the statement originated from the authority is not an argument for ignoring the criticism.

Forms

There are two basic forms of appeal to authority, based on the authority being trusted. The more relevant the expertise of an authority, the more compelling the argument. Nonetheless, authority is never absolute, so all appeals to authority which assert that the authority is necessarily infallible are fallacious.

The first form of the appeal to authority is when a person presenting a position on a subject mentions some authority who also holds that position, but who is not actually an authority in that area. For instance, the statement "Arthur C. Clarke released a report showing it is necessary to floss three times daily" should not convince many people of anything about flossing, as Arthur C. Clarke was not a known expert on dental care. Much advertising relies on this logical fallacy in the form of endorsements and sponsorships. A sportsperson or actor, for example, is no more likely than average to have an specialist knowledge of watches or perfume, but their endorsement of a particular brand of watch or perfume is very valuable in advertising terms. Sri Lankabhimanya Sir Arthur Charles Clarke, CBE (16 December 1917–19 March 2008), was a British science fiction author, inventor, and futurist, most famous for the novel 2001: A Space Odyssey, written in collaboration with director Stanley Kubrick, a collaboration which led also to the film of the same name... Dental hygienist flossing a patients teeth Dental floss is either a bundle of thin nylon filaments or a plastic (teflon or polyethylene) ribbon used to remove food and dental plaque from teeth. ... X-rays can reveal if a person has cavities Dentistry is the practical application of knowledge of dental science (the science of placement, arrangement, function of teeth) to human beings. ... // Advert redirects here. ... In promotion and of advertising, a testimonial or endorsement consists of a written or spoken statement, sometimes from a public figure, sometimes from a private citizen, extolling the virtue of some product. ... Sponsorship can refer to several concepts: A sponsors support of an event, activity, person, or organization. ... For other uses, see Watch (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Perfume (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Brand (disambiguation). ...

The second form, citing a person who is actually an authority in the relevant field, carries more subjective, cognitive weight. A person who is recognized as an expert authority often has greater experience and knowledge of their field than the average person, so their opinion is more likely than average to be correct. In practical subjects such as car repair, an experienced mechanic who knows how to fix a certain car will be trusted to a greater degree than someone who is not an expert in car repair. There are many cases where one must rely on an expert, and cannot be reasonably expected to have the same experience, knowledge and skill that that person has. Many trust a surgeon without ever needing to know all the details about surgery themselves. Nevertheless, experts can still be mistaken and their expertise does not always guarantee that their arguments are valid. “Surgeon” redirects here. ...

In mathematics, the second form, especially when the appellant is himself the authority, is wryly referred to as "proof by tenure".

Appeal to authority as logical fallacy

An (fallacious) appeal to authority argument has the basic form:

1. A makes claim B;
2. there is something positive about A,
3. therefore claim B is true.

The first statement is called a 'factual claim' and is the pivot point of much debate. The last statement is referred to as an 'inferential claim' and represents the reasoning process. There are two types of inferential claim, explicit and implicit. Arguments that (fallaciously) rely on the objectionable aspects of the person for the truth of the conclusion are discussed under ad hominem. Look up ad hominem in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Examples of appeals to authority

• Referring to the philosophical beliefs of Aristotle. "If Aristotle said it was so, it is so."
• Referring to the philosophical beliefs of Jesus, Muhammad, or any other religious figure. "If (religious figure) said it was so, it is so." Such an appeal may be based upon the belief that the speaker in question is holy and, by extension, inerrant.
• Referring to a sacred text. "If (the text) said it was so, it is so." Like in the previous example, such an appeal may be based upon the belief that the sacred text in question is inerrant.
• Referring to what one is told by one's teacher and/or parent. "My teacher said so, therefore it must be so."
• Believing something because it is attributed to an honored profession, as in "This doctor recommends (brand-name) aspirin" or "Bankers recommend that people have six months' wages in a savings account".
• Something must be true because there is a scientific consensus.

Keep in mind that the fact that an argument is an appeal to authority doesn't make its conclusion untrue, nor does it make it unreasonable to believe the argument. An appeal to authority cannot guarantee the truth of the conclusion (see truth and consensus theory of truth), because the fact that an authority says something does not make it so. Ideally, propositions being true (or having arguments supporting them) is what makes authorities believe them to be true, not the other way around. An appeal to authority, thus, confuses cause and effect. Furthermore, notice that a rigorous concept of truth is a complex subject. For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Muhammad in a new genre of Islamic calligraphy started in the 17th century by Hafiz Osman. ... For other uses, see Believe. ... Holiness is the state of being holy, that is, set apart for the worship or service of God or gods. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Biblical... For other uses, see Believe. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Biblical... Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of science at a particular time. ... Time Saving Truth from Falsehood and Envy, François Lemoyne, 1737 For other uses, see Truth (disambiguation). ... The consensus theory of truth, originated by Charles Sanders Peirce who called it pragmatism, and later pragmaticism, holds that a statement is true if it would be agreed to by all those who investigate it if investigation were carried sufficiently far in that particular direction. ... Time Saving Truth from Falsehood and Envy, François Lemoyne, 1737 For other uses, see Truth (disambiguation). ...

Discussion

Among the most respected of ancient Greek philosophers was Pythagoras, whose disciples were known for their custom of justifying their assertions by reference to the bald assertions of their master: αὐτὸς έφη (autos ephe), or "he himself hath said it." This well-known practice was carried on by later philosophers and ecclesiastics. Because of the influence of scholasticism, the expression is commonly known in its Latin translation, ipse dixit. The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... Pythagoras of Samos (Greek: ; born between 580 and 572 BC, died between 500 and 490 BC) was an Ionian Greek mathematician[1] and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. ... Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school, and is the school of philosophy taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100–1500. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Ipsedixitism is the pejorative term for an unsupported rhetorical assertion; the term in Logic for a missing argument. ...

In the Middle Ages, roughly from the 12th century to the 15th century, the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established dogma, and using the beliefs of Aristotle was an important part of many debates. Aristotle's thought became so central to the philosophy of the late Middle Ages that he became known in Latin as Ille Philosophus, "the philosopher," and quotations from Aristotle became known as ipse dixits ("He, himself, has spoken."). In this case, Aristotle is an example of someone who is an authority in philosophy, but philosophy is an area where direct evidence is less readily available, and therefore, Aristotle's ideas carry weight, but are not the final word. On the other hand, arguing that all astronomers believe that the planet Neptune exists - and therefore, that serves as evidence of the planet's existence - is a more compelling argument because astronomers are knowledgeable in the relevant field and are in a position to readily prove or disprove the existence of the planet (direct experience). However, it is still better to argue from evidence than from what astronomers believe. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... For other senses of this word, see dogma (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ...

Authoritarian ethics is the meta-ethical theory by which one attains ethical knowledge from an authority, for example from a God or from the law (see Divine command theory). The bandwagon fallacy can be viewed as a special case of an appeal to authority, where the authority is public opinion. In philosophy, meta-ethics or analytic ethics [1] is the branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, and ethical statements, attitudes, and judgments. ... This article is about the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... For other uses, see Law (disambiguation). ... The divine command theory is the metaethical theory that morality (e. ... The Argumentum ad numerum or argument from numbers is a logical fallacy that consists of the assertion that the more people who accept or believe an assertion, the more likely that assertion is to be true. ... Public Opinion is a book on media and democracy by Walter Lippmann. ...

The well known "Because I said so" argument is an infamous logical fallacy of this type. This statement makes the assumption that when a claim is made by an authority figure, especially a parent, the argument is automatically valid. Recall that this does not mean that the parents are not authorized to use such statements, or that children should automatically not obey a parent using this statement. More often than not, "Because I said so" is shorthand for "For reasons too complex for you to understand, or too lengthy for me to explain"^{[citation needed]}, which is formally flawed logic, but (as stated before) does not necessarily mean the conclusion (the requested obedience) is wrong.

Epistemology without appeal to authority

A philosophy which denies and rejects harshly the existence of any authority, proof, disproof, or justification, even only with probability, and holds everything open to criticism, including observation (that is, it even rejects the inference "X was observed directly → X is necessarily true" as an appeal to authority), logics and its own very basic positions, such as criticism itself, is pancritical rationalism. Without the need to ever appeal to authority for justification, the pancritical rationalist is able to hold his position with complete integrity, since he is not guilty of relativism or dogmatism. Pancritical rationalism (PCR) is a development of critical rationalism and panrationalism originated by William Warren Bartley in his book The Retreat to Commitment. ...

Sub-categories

Last man standing fallacy^{[citation needed]} — The arguments of the victor in an election or war are axiomatically validated by the victory. It is also known as the Trial by Combat Fallacy,^{[citation needed]} Winner Takes All Fallacy.^{[citation needed]}

Martyr fallacy^{[citation needed]} — The loser is axiomatically correct by virtue of failure (antithesis of Last Man Standing Fallacy^{[citation needed]}), also known as the Underdog Fallacy.^{[citation needed]}

Not universal taxonomy [nomenclature derived from "Lectures on Logic" Dioc.North [Paul Priest, 1991]

See also

• Credentialism
• Logical fallacy
• Precedent