The aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH), sometimes referred to as the aquatic ape theory (AAT), proposes that the ancestors of humans went through one or more periods of time living in more aquatic settings than our ape cousins and that this history accounts for many of the characteristics of species in the Homo genus that are not seen in other primates, such as chimpanzees or gorillas. The AAH has been poorly received in mainstream paleoanthropology (Lowenstein & Zihlman 1980, Langdon 1997) but there are at least 20 published documents in the literature which promote various forms of it (e.g. Hardy 1960, Morgan 1982, 1994, 1997, Ellis 1986, 1993, 1995, Crawford et al 2000, Verhaegen et al 2002), several that offer statements of support for it (e.g. Tobias 1998, 2002, Cameron & Groves 2004:68) or against it (e.g. MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999, Jablonski 2006), and a few that give a balanced account of arguments both for and against (e.g., the most important, Roede et al 1991.) Shortcut: WP:-( Vandalism is indisputable bad-faith addition, deletion, or change to content, made in a deliberate attempt to compromise the integrity of the encyclopedia. ... Shortcut: WP:-( Vandalism is indisputable bad-faith addition, deletion, or change to content, made in a deliberate attempt to compromise the integrity of the encyclopedia. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ... Species Homo sapiens See text for extinct species. ... For other uses of the word, please see Genus (disambiguation). ... Families 15, See classification A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans. ... Type species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 distribution of Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species in the genus Pan. ... Type species Troglodytes gorilla Savage, 1847 distribution of Gorilla Species Gorilla gorilla Gorilla beringei The gorilla, the largest of the living primates, is a ground-dwelling omnivore that inhabits the forests of Africa. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The AAH states that human ancestors evolved in warm and wet environments and gathered much of their food from shallow sea-, lake- or riverside environments through beach-combing, wading and diving for foods such as coconuts, bird's eggs, turtles, shell- and crayfish, part of reeds, papyrus and other aquatic plants.^{[citation needed]} There are interpretations which propose fresh-water habitats (Ellis 1993), variations in the timescale (Verhaegen et al. 2002) and the proposed degree of selection arising from moving through water. The most popular formulation involves a semi-aquatic episode coinciding with the Pliocene-Pleistocene littoral diaspora of the Homo genus along the East-African Rift Valley lakes and the African and Indian Ocean coasts. The Pliocene epoch (spelled Pleiocene in some older texts) is the period in the geologic timescale that extends from 5. ... The Pleistocene epoch (IPA: ) is part of the geologic timescale. ... African Rift Valley. ...

A fairly broad definition of the AAH is given by Kuliukas:^[1]

The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis (AAH): The hypothesis that water has acted as an agent of selection in the evolution of humans more than it has in the evolution of our ape cousins. And that, as a result, many of the major physical differences between humans and the other apes may be explained, to a large extent, as adaptations to moving (wading, swimming and/or diving) better through various aquatic media and from greater feeding on resources that might be procured from such habitats.

History

Prior to 546 B.C., the Milesian philosopher Anaximander proposed that mankind had sprung from an aquatic species of animal. He thought that the extended infancy of humans could not have originally permitted survival as a land-based species. This idea was based on elemental forces of mutation as opposed to evolution. The Milesians of Hellenic (Greek) civilization were the inhabitants of Miletus, a city in the Anatolia province of modern-day Turkey, near the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and at the mouth of the Meander River. ... Anaximander Possibly what Anaximanders map looked like Anaximander (Greek: Αναξίμανδρος)(c. ...

The history of the modern origin of the AAT is poorly known. For instance, some researchers believe that the first "aquatic hypothesis" was originally suggested 1972 by Elaine Morgan, most are sure that this idea was proposed 1960 by Alister Hardy, and few insiders believe that the first author was the German pathologist Max Westenhöfer (1871-1957), who published his "Aquatile Hypothese"1942 in his main work The Road to Man (Der Eigenweg des Menschen). However, Westenhöfer's idea was already proposed as early as 1923, as Nicole Bender-Oser showed in an in depth medical thesis about Westenhöfer's life and work (Bender-Oser 2004). 1942 (MCMXLII) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1942 calendar). ...

The idea of a decisive aquatic phase in hominid evolution became more well-known in 1960 when proposed in academic circles by the marine biologist Sir Alister Hardy. Hardy had had the idea privately since about 1930, independently of Westenhöfer. The early television playwright and later feminist writer Elaine Morgan developed and promoted it, publishing in 1972 her first book on the subject, The Descent of Woman, and later other books, including The Aquatic Ape (1982), The Scars of Evolution (1990), The Descent of the Child (1994), and The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis (1997). Other proponents of this theory are Marc Verhaegen, Renato Bender and Nicole Bender-Oser. An important aspect of the reception of the AAT concerns the fact that Bender-Oser's pro AAT was acknowledged with a faculty prize by the Medical Faculty of the University of Bern in 2004. This is seen as an important positive reception of the AAT from the academic side. Marine biology is the scientific study of the plants, animals and other organisms that live in the ocean or any other body of water. ... Sir Alister Hardy (1896 - 1985) was an Oxford-educated marine biologist, expert on zooplankton and marine ecosystems. ... Year 1930 (MCMXXX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Feminism is a number of social, cultural and political movements, theories and moral philosophies that are concerned with cultural, political and economic practices and inequalities that discriminate against women. ... Elaine Morgan is a Welsh feminist writer, best known for her television work. ... Year 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... 1994 (MCMXCIV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by United Nations. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Arguments for the aquatic ape hypothesis

The aquatic ape hypothesis puts forward several main arguments (some of the assertions in these arguments are in dispute).

Nakedness

Humans are the only primate species in which, over most of the body, hair is so fine and sparse as to reveal the skin under it into adulthood. Baby chimpanzees have thinner hair and visible skin but as they reach adulthood after a year or two (as opposed to more than ten for humans) their fur becomes much thicker. Furthermore, human hair is broadly aligned in such a way as to match fluid flow lines while swimming. Environments known to give rise to naked mammals are tropical (in some larger-sized mammals such as elephants — which are themselves descended from aquatic ancestors — and some rhinoceros species), aquatic (whales, dolphins, walrus, dugongs, and manatees), semi-aquatic or littoral (hippopotamus, babirusas), and subterranean (naked mole rat). Families 15, See classification A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans. ... For the film, see Hair (film). ... Type species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 distribution of Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species in the genus Pan. ... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass †Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass †Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria Mammals (class Mammalia) are warm-blooded, vertebrate animals characterized by the production of milk in female mammary glands and the presence of hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in the... Genera and Species Loxodonta Loxodonta cyclotis Loxodonta africana Elephas Elephas maximus Elephas antiquus † Elephas beyeri † Elephas celebensis † Elephas cypriotes † Elephas ekorensis † Elephas falconeri † Elephas iolensis † Elephas planifrons † Elephas platycephalus † Elephas recki † Stegodon † Mammuthus † Elephantidae (the elephants) is a family of pachyderm, and the only remaining family in the order Proboscidea... Black Rhino from Howletts Wild Animal Park For other uses, see Rhinoceros (disambiguation). ... A Fin Whale The term whale is ambiguous: it can refer to all cetaceans, to just the larger ones, or only to members of particular families within the order Cetacea. ... Genera See article below. ... Binomial name (Linnaeus, 1758) Distribution of Walrus Subspecies Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) are large semi-aquatic mammals that live in the cold Arctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere. ... Binomial name Dugong dugon (Müller, 1776) Natural range of . ... Species Trichechus inunguis Trichechus manatus Trichechus senegalensis For the record label, see Manatee Records. ... Binomial name Hippopotamus amphibius Linnaeus, 1758 Range map The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), from the Greek ‘ιπποπόταμος (hippopotamos, hippos meaning horse and potamos meaning river), is a large, mostly plant-eating African mammal, one of only two extant in the family Hippopotamidae. ... Binomial name Babyrousa babyrussa Linnaeus,, 1758 Bizzare 4 tusk babirusa from Indonesian region. ... Binomial name Heterocephalus glaber Rüppell, 1842 Distribution of the Naked Mole Rat The Naked Mole Rat (Heterocephalus glaber), also known as the Sand Puppy, or Desert Mole Rat, is a burrowing rodent native to parts of East Africa and the only species currently classified in genus Heterocephalus. ...

However, humans also developed sweat glands. These displaced hair follicles in the skin to allow cooling of the body during vigorous exercise, an adaptation which seems useless for water dwellers.

Bipedalism

There exist very few bipedal mammals, and humans are the only ones which adopt a full-time, fully-upright posture with a vertical vertebral column. Gorillas, chimpanzees and bears are able to walk on two legs when they have a particular reason. This can be seen when chimps are feeding on grasses in a bayou. They often stand on two legs and wade through the water with their upper bodies out of the water. They do this with relative ease, but always revert to quadrupedalism as their basic means of locomotion. Some prosimians such as indris skip sideways on two legs when on the ground, because their adaptations to leaping through trees make ground-based quadrupedalism difficult. Kangaroos and hopping rodent species use a bipedal form of locomotion with bent knees and bent hips in rest. Even birds, with exceptions such as (semi-aquatic) penguins which have vertical vertebral columns, walk bipedally but with a horizontal vertebral column. Creatures such as squirrels and meerkats often adopt an upright posture when stationary, but do not walk or run bipedally. A biped is an animal that travels across surfaces supported by two legs. ... The vertebral column seen from the side Different regions (curvatures) of the vertebral column The vertebral column (backbone or spine) is a column of vertebrae situated in the dorsal aspect of the abdomen. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Big Cypress Bayou in Jefferson, Texas off of U.S. Route 59. ... The Zebra is an example of a quadruped. ... Binomial name Indri indri (Gmelin, 1788) The Indri (Indri indri), also called the Entrina, is a large (up to 70 cm long, and weighing up to 13 kg) tree-dwelling relative of the lemur and, like all lemuroids, it is native to Madagascar. ... Species Macropus rufus Macropus giganteus Macropus fuliginosus Macropus antilopinus A kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae. ... Suborders Sciuromorpha Castorimorpha Myomorpha Anomaluromorpha Hystricomorpha Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents. ... “Aves” redirects here. ... Modern genera Aptenodytes Eudyptes Eudyptula Megadyptes Pygoscelis Spheniscus For prehistoric genera, see Systematics Some penguins are curious. ... Genera Many, see the article Sciuridae. ... Binomial name Suricata suricatta (Schreber, 1776) Meerkat range The meerkat or suricate Suricata suricatta is a small mammal and a member of the mongoose family. ...

Although the posture improves the ability to carry objects and use tools while walking or running, bipedalism and upright posture are believed to come at a significant cost, from back and knee problems, shin splints, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, hernias, and problems with childbirth. A modern hammer is directly descended from ancient hand tools A tool or device is a piece of equipment which typically provides a mechanical advantage in accomplishing a physical task. ... An animated demonstration of a six-legged insect walking. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Look up Back in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Knee (disambiguation). ... Shin splints is a general term used to refer to a painful sensation in the lower legs. ... Varicose veins are veins on the leg which are large, twisted, and ropelike, and can cause pain, swelling, or itching. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... A hernia is often likened to the failure of a tire. ... Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a human pregnancy with the emergence of a newborn infant/s from the mothers uterus. ...

Aquatic ape theory proponents argue that as evolution works in small steps, it is hard to see how bipedalism could have evolved on the savannah: the mass of the torso makes it inherently unstable and inefficient for locomotion. Water, however, supports the body, and proboscis monkeys as well as lowland gorillas have been observed wading bipedally in mangrove or swamp forests. Baboons have also been observed to cross shallow water bipedally.^[2] Savanna at Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. ... The human torso Torso is an anatomical term for the greater part of the human body without the head and limbs. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Binomial name Nasalis larvatus Wurmb, 1787 The Proboscis Monkey, Nasalis larvatus also known as Long-nosed Monkey is a reddish-brown arboreal Old World monkey. ...

It has been claimed that the one other animal known to have a pelvis adapted to bipedal walking was prehistoric Oreopithecus bambolii (commonly known as the "swamp ape" owing to its flooded habitat). Kuliukas in 2001 argues that the skeletal morphology of the early hominan Australopithecus afarensis is consistent with adaptation for wading in water. Kawamura in 1962 observed a troop of Japanese macaques developing bipedalism in water through cleaning sweet potatoes therein. Binomial name Oreopithecus bambolii Gervais, 1872 The Swamp Ape (Oreopithecus bambolii) is a prehistoric primate species from the Miocene epoch whose fossils have been found in Italy (Tuscany and Sardinia) and in East Africa. ... Habitat (which is Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species live and grow. ... Genera Homo (humans) Paranthropus (extinct) Australopithecus (extinct) Sahelanthropus (extinct) Orrorin (extinct) Ardipithecus (extinct) Kenyanthropus (extinct) The more anthropomorphic primates of the Hominini tribe are placed in the Hominina subtribe. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...

Breathing

See also: Mammalian diving reflex

Most land mammals have no conscious control over their breathing. The voluntary control humans have over their respiratory system can be compared to that of (semi)aquatic mammals which inhale as much air as they need for a dive, then return to the surface for air. Morgan argued that this voluntary breathing capacity was one of the preadaptations to human voluntary speech. Submerging the face into water causes the mammalian diving reflex, which is found in all mammals (including humans, although it is less pronounced), but especially in marine mammals (as, for example, whales and seals. ... The Respiratory System Among four-legged animals, the respiratory system generally includes tubes, such as the bronchi, used to carry air to the lungs, where gas exchange takes place. ... Layers of Atmosphere - not to scale (NOAA)[3] Earths atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earths gravity. ... In evolutionary biology, preadaptation describes a situation where an organism uses a preexisting anatomical structure inherited from an ancestor for a potentially unrelated purpose. ...

Fat

Humans have ten times as many fat cells under the skin as would be expected in a non-aquatic animal the same size, and have many adipose cells even when considered slim.^{[citation needed]} Mammals which hibernate have localised seasonal fat humps; but aquatic mammals retain fat (blubber) throughout the year. Human infants are especially fat compared with apes and most other fully terrestrial mammals. The human fatty layer (panniculus adiposus) is also attached to the skin of the central body parts as is the case with most medium- or larger-sized (semi)aquatic mammals, rather than to the muscle as in almost all land mammals. Humans also lack the layer of cutaneous muscle (panniculus carnosus) possessed by land mammals including non-human primates, which allows many land animals to twitch their skin, and which is not present in aquatic mammals. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell. Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green). ... It has been suggested that Subcutaneous fat be merged into this article or section. ... This article refers to the process of hibernation in biology. ... Remains of seventeenth century blubber cauldrons at the abandoned Dutch settlement of Smeerenburg in Svalbard, Norway This article is about the body tissue. ... The panniculus adiposus is part of the subcutaneous tissue. ... The panniculus carnosus is part of the subcutaneous tissue. ...

Facial Structure

Human facial structure is quite different from other apes, with thick eyebrow hair and downturned nostrils. The shape of the human nose, with nostrils running perpendicular to the rest of the face, prevents water from entering the nose while upright. Thick eyebrows allow water to flow from the top of the head away from the eyes upon surfacing, allowing for faster adjustment to vision through air. Human facial hair forces water to flow away from and around the nose and mouth to enable faster inhalation upon surfacing.

Childbirth

Dramatic increase in cranium size is a prominent theme in human evolution, making childbirth difficult and dangerous. Water birthing is believed to facilitate childbirth and to reduce risks to mother and infant.^{[Who says this?]} Human infants are born covered in vernix caseosa, a waterproof coating also seen in newborn common seals, and continue to draw oxygen through the umbilical cord while underwater. Human infants naturally hold their breath and can "swim" from birth. Water birth is a method of giving birth in a bathtub or pool full of warm water. ... Large amounts of vernix on babies feet, baby not yet rubbed down, baby approximately 60 seconds out of womb. ... Binomial name bobbi Linnaeus,, 1758 Common or Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina) are true seals of the Northern Hemisphere. ... In placental mammals, the umbilical cord is a tube that connects a developing embryo or fetus to its placenta. ...

Also, perhaps psychologically speaking, aquatic mammals tend to exhibit a higher degree and more frequent playfulness than land-based mammals.

Breasts

Humans are the only mammal with perpetually swollen mammary glands. Human females have large fatty breasts that float on the surface of water. This would have allowed a mother to feed an infant at varying depth while the baby was kept out of the water and thus allowed to breathe normally.

Nutrition

Human brain tissue requires comparatively large amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, which are uncommon in the land food chain but prevalent in the marine food chain. Most animals which move to plains life tend to develop smaller brains, while aquatic animals tend to evolve larger ones, quite possibly because of access to omega-3. Omega-3 fatty acids also promote HDL cholesterol and cardiovascular health in humans, while the saturated fats in pork, beef and other land-based meats do the opposite. Yet for land-based carnivores the opposite is true and they have special digestive enzymes to neutralize the harmful effects of dietary cholesterol. It is noteworthy that many nutritionists^{[attribution needed]} find seafood to be the healthiest protein source for humans, whereas the meat of land-based mammals such as from beef or pork are the most harmful.-1... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... High-density lipoproteins (HDL) form a class of lipoproteins, varying somewhat in their size (8–11 nm in diameter), that carry cholesterol from the bodys tissues to the liver. ... Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. ... Two halves of pork being delivered Pork is the culinary name for meat from pigs. ... For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation). ...

Tears and excessive sweating

Sweating and tears are prevalent in humans but not in other primates. They are considered further evidence to support the hypothesis, insofar as they are vectors for the removal of excess water and salts from the body as might result from the ingestion of saltwater (as in eating food from a salt marsh). Other alleged former marine animals, such as the elephant, cry saline tears, and the mechanism by which humans produce sweat from eccrine glands could have developed as a means of shedding extra salt. Overheated sea lions on land may sweat, though this claim is rather tenuous. Genera and Species Loxodonta Loxodonta cyclotis Loxodonta africana Elephas Elephas maximus Elephas antiquus † Elephas beyeri † Elephas celebensis † Elephas cypriotes † Elephas ekorensis † Elephas falconeri † Elephas iolensis † Elephas planifrons † Elephas platycephalus † Elephas recki † Stegodon † Mammuthus † Elephantidae (the elephants) is a family of pachyderm, and the only remaining family in the order Proboscidea... Genera Eumetopias Zalophus Otaria Neophoca Phocarctos Hundreds of California Sea Lions sunbathing on Pier 39 in San Francisco. ...

Reproductive traits

The most common human mating practice, ventro-ventral ("missionary position" or "dolphin-style"), is essentially front-to-front, exactly how aquatic mammals must mate. Few other land animals (bonobo, orangutan, potto, sloths, all arboreal) use such a position more or less frequently; instead, mating coitus more ferarum is the norm, as with, for example, dogs. Marine animals, even non-mammals, also tend to develop a less accessible vagina to keep out water, necessitating a longer penis (possibly explaining why the human penis is much longer in relation to body size than any other primate penis), a trait long noted as specific to humans and bonobos (who live partially in flooded forest) among primates. The missionary position The missionary position A variation on the missionary position as depicted in Pompeii The missionary position is a common human sex position also used by certain other species including bonobos[1] and armadillos. ... Genera See article below. ... Binomial name Schwarz, 1929 Bonobo distribution The Bonobo (Pan paniscus), until recently usually called the Pygmy Chimpanzee and less often the Dwarf or Gracile Chimpanzee,[3] is one of the two species comprising the chimpanzee genus, Pan. ... Type species Simia pygmaeus Linnaeus, 1760 Orangutan distribution Species Pongo pygmaeus Pongo abelii The orangutans are two species of great apes known for their intelligence and their long arms and reddish-brown hair. ... Binomial name Perodicticus potto (P.L.S. Müller, 1766) The Potto (Perodicticus potto) is a strepsirrhine primate from the Lorisidae family. ... Families Megalonychidae Bradypodidae †Rathymotheriidae †Scelidotheriidae †Mylodontidae †Orophodontidae †Megatheriidae Sloths are medium-sized mammals that live in Central and South America belonging to the families Megalonychidae and Bradypodidae, part of the order Pilosa. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The vagina, (from Latin, literally sheath or scabbard ) is the tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles. ... The penis (plural penises, penes) is an external male sexual organ. ...

Furthermore, human sexual response is triggered by the release of pheromones which are carried by sweat. These pheromones are effective when the human body is otherwise clean and odor-free. For that to take place in warm environments at least some part of the day would need to be spent in water to maintain body cleanliness.

Kidney morphology

Amongst primates, kidneys normally exhibiting lobulated, multipyramidal medullas is a unique attribute of the human species. Although kidneys naturally multipyramidal in their medullary morphology are rare in terrestrial mammals, kidneys with lobulated medullas do occur in elephants, bears, rhinoceroses, bison, cattle, pigs, camels and the okapi. However, kidneys characterized with multipyramidal medullas are common in aquatic mammals and are nearly universal in marine mammals. The kidneys are organs that filter wastes (such as urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. ... The renal lobe is a portion of a kidney consisting of a renal pyramid and the renal cortex above it. ... Renal pyramids are cone-shaped tissues of the kidney. ... The renal medulla is the innermost part of the kidney. ...

To avoid the deleterious effects of saline water dehydration, marine mammals have adaptively thickened the medullas of their kidneys – which enhances their ability to concentrate excretory salts in the urine. However, the lobulation of the kidney’s medullary region in marine mammals appears to be an adaptation to expand the surface area between the medulla and the enveloping outer cortex in order to increase the volume of marine dietary induced hypertonic plasma that can be immediately processed for the excretion of excess salts and nitrogenous waste.

A phylogenetic review of freshwater aquatic mammals suggest that most, if not all, nonmarine aquatic mammals inherited the medullary pyramids of their kidneys from ancestors who originally inhabited, or frequented, marine environments. So this suggest that most, if not all, aquatic mammals exhibiting kidneys with lobulated medullas are either marine adapted – or are descended from marine antecedents. Additionally, a phylogenetic review of nonhuman terrestrial mammals possessing kidneys with multipyramidal medullas suggest that bears, elephants and possibly rhinoceroses, also, inherited their lobulated medullas from semiaquatic marine ancestors.

The fact that several terrestrial mammalian species of semiaquatic marine ancestry exhibit kidneys with multipyramidal medullas, suggest that humans may have, also, inherited the lobulated medullas of their kidneys from coastal marine ancestors.

The Spleen

The human spleen, an organ that stores oxygen-rich blood, is relatively large in humans, serving as a kind of biological "scuba tank". This is suggested after studying physiological changes in freedivers; The contracted and compressed spleen adds extra oxygenated blood to the circulation.^[3] The German physiologist Max Westenhöfer already noticed the resemblance of the human spleen with aquatic mammals: The spleen is an organ located the abdomen, where it functions in the destruction of old white blood cells and holding a reservoir of blood. ... 12 litre and 3 litre steel diving cylinders A diving cylinder or SCUBA tank is used to store and transport high pressure breathing gas as a component of an Aqua-Lung. ... Freedive photographer Free-diving is an aquatic sport, considered an extreme sport, in which divers attempt to reach great depths unassisted by breathing apparatus. ...

Quoting from Das Eigenweg Des Menschen 1942, Berlin,:

"(...) The condition of the 'incomplete uniformation or consolidation' of the human spleen and kidneys has been surpassed only by one species of mammals, namely the Cetaceans, the whales (dolphins and porpoises), compared to the kidneys of cows, of the pinnipeds, of seaotters and bear, hippopotamus and rhinoceros, in other words of animals, which used to or still live in or near water. Of special significance is the observation, that all new-born anthropoid apes have fully consolidated kidneys, as do the majority of mammals, while their spleen may in rare cases show remains of grooving; the consolidation has not yet reached its full extent. Humans (...) stand, in this respect, on one of the lower rungs of the ladder of evolution, while the anthropoids, their so-called closest relatives, as well as the other mammals have by far surpassed them in this respect. Whales, dolphins, seals, sea otters and bears seem much closer relatives to humans when we compare their spleen and kidneys than do anthropoids, who have by the way also developed remarkably far ahead of humans considering the consolidation of the aveolas of the lungs. These remarkable coincidences between such different species must naturally be interpreted as convergences. The fact that these species have a common environment, water, allows the consideration that in an early stage of human mammalian development there existed a being with an aquatic way of life."

Circumstantial evidence from the Sea of Afar

For the AAH to be true two questions must be answered: Why did our proto-human ancestors go into the water in the first place, and once they had begun to adapt to life in the water, why did they leave? The now-dry Sea of Afar provides possible answers both of these questions. The Afar Depression was flooded by the Red Sea about 7 million years ago, meaning that the proto-humans (perhaps Orrorin tugenensis) would not have travelled to the sea, but that the sea came to them. Likewise, they would not have left the sea, but rather it simply dried up. This hypothesis corresponds well with the earliest human or proto-human finds such as Lucy which were found in or around the Afar Depression.^[4] MODIS satellite image of the Afar Depression and surrounding regions of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabia, and the Horn of Africa. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... Location of the Red Sea The Red Sea is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ... Binomial name †Orrorin tugenensis Senut et al, 2001 Orrorin tugenensis is considered as the second oldest possible hominin ancestor related to modern humans (other than Sahelanthropus tchadensis) and is the only species classified in genus Orrorin. ... Lucy (Amharic ድንቅነሽ dinqneš, you are wonderful) is the common name of AL 288-1, the remarkably near complete Australopithecus afarensis skeleton discovered on November 30, 1974 by the International Afar Research Expedition (IARE; director: Maurice Taieb, co-directors: Donald Johanson and Yves Coppens) in the Awash Valley of Ethiopias...

Comparison with terrestrial models

Nakedness

See also: Neoteny

The traditional land-based explanation is that fur loss was for cooling - humans sweat more per unit surface area than other mammals, and proponents of this idea claim that it makes us particularly effective at remaining active during the heat of the day. A layer of hair would supposedly reduce the effectiveness of this. More recently, Pagel and Bodmer hypothesised the loss of human hair serves to reduce parasite load. In either case, humans can support hairlessness due to their own distinct advantages with shelter, clothing and fire; using these advantages enables humans to regulate their own temperature better than having a thick layer of fur: the thickness of fur is fixed, but one can remove clothing, move away from a fire, or leave a shelter. This is the same solution humans have for shaved sheep; they are given sheep blankets. Pagel and Bodmer claim "[o]ur hypothesis explains features of human hairlessness — such as the marked sex difference in body hair, and its retention in the pubic regions — that are not explained by other theories."^[5] Neoteny describes a process by which paedomorphism is achieved, and is a subject studied in the field of developmental biology. ...

Body hair helps protect against direct sun (shaved sheep overheat more easily) and extreme heat as well as cold. Human sweating is highly wasteful of water and salts, which is a distinct disadvantage on the savanna; and that exposed skin might not be essential for sweating to be effective (hair creates much more surface area for evaporation than skin). A prime example of this is the horse, which does sweat when hot, and yet is covered in hair. Indeed, most savanna animals have hair in part because it provides protection to skin from the heat and ultraviolet radiation of direct sunlight, not as important to semi-aquatic animals which are cooled and sheltered by water.

In addition, any such hypothesis has to explain the pattern of hair that we do have, and why women and children have less body hair than men.

On the first point, why should we have retained head hair if the purpose of a naked skin is to keep cool?^{[Who says this?]} On the side of aquatic ape theory, it may be noted that the top and the back of the head are the areas least in contact with water in the human pattern of swimming, and also the only areas covered with thick hair in both mature individuals and (some) infants.

On the second point, it is possible to suggest an aquatic scenario in which mature males spent more time near the shore, while mothers with babies stayed in deeper water out of reach of land predators. By contrast, it is difficult for the temperature regulation hypothesis to accommodate a case where females and infants were more active than males, and therefore more in need of sweat-cooling, in the heat of the day.

Bipedalism

There are over a dozen land-based suggestions as to why the first hominids became bipedal: carrying behaviour, tool-making, and sentry behaviour, for example. Usually these are given as a continuation of ape bipedalism which is less adaptive.

The difficulty with this, according to aquatic ape proponents, is that they only apply for a small amount of time, unlike wading which could have happened frequently; when not engaged in these behaviours, the proto-hominids would simply have reverted to quadrupedalism.^{[Who says this?]} In waist deep water, apes have little choice but to move bipedally and do so, very predictably. This is unusual for mammals which typically continue to wade quadrupedally, or switch to swimming.

For apes to become bipedal they would need more of a curved spine, a basin-like pelvis, and the development of an arched foot with short toes. Apes are capable of walking upright but only for a short distance. Humans can walk long distances but cannot reach speeds on two legs that an ape can on four limbs.^{[citation needed]}

Although, according to savanna hypothesis long term bipedalism would be the preferred mode of locomotion for most activities as carrying things in a savanna would be very frequent. Also, an assumption of reverting to quadrupedalism assumes quadrupedalism was the previously preferred method of transportation (see Bipedalism Objections hereinafter). While modern humans are not engaged in bipedal activities we do not revert to quadrupedalism, while in water humans are frequently not bipedal. It was commonly believed that early hominids left the jungle to live on the open plains of Africa. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ...

Fat

Fat is often believed to be important in developing and maintaining the brain, which is a very expensive organ in terms of energy requirements. This suggestion, as with body hair, requires an additional explanation for women and babies having a much higher proportion of body fat than men -- such as that babies need fat to aid high levels of post-natal brain growth not seen in other primates, and women need fat to aid in pregnancy and lactation. Italic text // ahh addiing sum spiice iin hurr`` For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ...

The aquatic ape hypothesis accounts for the sex differences in fat (as with body hair) by suggesting that nursing mothers would have spent more time in water than adult males. Terrestrial models suggest that the difference is due to the need for it during pregnancy and lactation.

Criticisms of the aquatic ape hypothesis

Nakedness

The babirusa is a littoral tropical medium-sized mammal which is about as naked as humans are. The suggestion that aquatic mammals or semiaquatic mammals lose their hair is based on a small group of aquatic mammals that did, and typically larger aquatic mammals. Many large mammals have shorter, fine hair, regardless of their aquatic involvement. Most aquatic and semiaquatic species of mammals retain their hair. Even in water, hair is a good insulator. Beavers, otters, fur seals, and polar bears have all retained their hair. Binomial name Babyrousa babyrussa Linnaeus,, 1758 Bizzare 4 tusk babirusa from Indonesian region. ... A littoral is the region near the shoreline of a body of fresh or salt water. ...

Many juvenile primates, such as chimps, have larger heads, less hair, and a greater ability to learn. This combined with similar skeletons has led many evolutionary biologists, including Stephen Jay Gould, to conclude that the nakedness of humans is due to a neoteny of our chimp/human ancestor. It has been suggested that Darwinian Fundamentalism be merged into this article or section. ... Neoteny describes a process by which paedomorphism is achieved, and is a subject studied in the field of developmental biology. ...

A 2003 study holds that nakedness may have developed as a way to reduce parasite load once hominids could regulate heat more effectively with fire and clothing. This, combined with sexual selection, may explain the hairlessness as well as the pattern of hairlessness for each gender.^[6]

Some parasites live on clothing as well, though these would have developed after humans lost their hair. This is shown by evolutionary studies of the body louse^[7] as well as the typical purposes of clothing for warmth being needed after or concurrent with nakedness. Parasite load would still be reduced when the parasite-infested clothing was removed.

Bipedalism

An orangutan on the ground, walking bipedally

Most apes are at least temporarily bipedal, using their upright state for locomotion, feeding and sentry behavior, all of which are useful for terrestrial life. Brachiators such as orangutans and gibbons, typically move by swinging in trees, when they come down to the ground they typically walk in a bipedal fashion, they are not quadupedal. The reason for brachiation is speed over bipedalism, not inability. There is no requirement to evolve this in water as bipedalism already exists in the primate family. Orangutan image, from a CD-ROM. All images are free for licensing according to the disc. ... Orangutan image, from a CD-ROM. All images are free for licensing according to the disc. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into brachiation. ... Type species Simia pygmaeus Linnaeus, 1760 Orangutan distribution Species Pongo pygmaeus Pongo abelii The orangutans are two species of great apes known for their intelligence and their long arms and reddish-brown hair. ... Genera Hylobates Hoolock Nomascus Symphalangus Gibbons are the small apes that are grouped in the family Hylobatidae. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

There is a growing school of thought that the common ancestor between humans and chimpanzees was actually a brachiator and chimpanzees simply reverted to knuckle-walking.^{[citation needed]} As such, bipedalism would, when the African forests changed to savanna, be the best mode available to such apes. Type species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 distribution of Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species in the genus Pan. ... Gorillas knuckle-walk using both their legs and their long arms (putting pressure on their knuckles, with the fingers rolled into the hand). ... Savanna at Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. ...

No aquatic mammal is bipedal. Few tetrapods evolve walking on two feet in an environment where swimming is preferred. Beyond this, some chimpanzees do walk in a bipedal fashion without much effort such as Oliver the chimpanzee. Classes Synapsida Sauropsida Amphibia A tetrapod (Greek tetrapoda, four-legged) is a vertebrate animal having four feet, legs or leglike appendages. ... Oliver, the Humanzee. Oliver is a chimpanzee who was once promoted as a missing link or Humanzee due to his [bipedal]] walk. ...

Fat

The quality of having many small and numerous fat cells under the skin is not unique to humans among land animals. Rather it is shared with many species including hedgehogs, monkeys and badgers. In addition, the distribution of these fat cells in humans does not correspond with the distribution of fat cells in whales, seals or other aquatic mammals.^{[citation needed]} Fat in aquatic mammals had evolved for use in streamlining and insulation (though not as insulating as blubber), and fat in humans does not function in this way nor to the same extent.^{[citation needed]} Fat distribution in humans corresponds with developing via sexual selection and as a luxury evolved from having a lack of predators.^{[citation needed]} Deers isolated from predatory wolves have been shown to become fatter in the same way, as have monkeys kept on special diets.^{[citation needed]} Remains of seventeenth century blubber cauldrons at the abandoned Dutch settlement of Smeerenburg in Svalbard, Norway This article is about the body tissue. ...

Removal of salt

Marine mammals usually remove extra salt via urine. Humans cannot drink much seawater and survive. This inability is inconsistent with a fully oceanic origin for humans, requiring that we have a nearby freshwater source. It is not inconsistent with a freshwater or possibly brackish origin. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Annual mean sea surface salinity for the World Ocean. ... For the village on the Isle of Wight, see Freshwater, Isle of Wight. ... Brackish water (less commonly brack water) is water that is saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as seawater. ...

Reproductive traits

It is true that the human penis is large relative to body size, though the bonobo penis is the largest of all primates.^[8] However, this can more easily be attributed to adaptations in favor of bipedalism, such as the loss of the os penis rather than an aquatic stage of man. Human females do not have an inaccessible vagina, though it is more inaccessible than in most four-legged animals, including chimpanzees. Humans' tendency to mate ventro-ventral does not necessarily imply aquatic adaptation. It could just as well be explained as another byproduct of bipedalism, having an entirely different cause than the parallel development of ventro-ventral mating in marine mammals. In addition, humans are able to mate in a variety of positions, including coitus more ferarum, but dolphins are only able to mate ventro-ventral due to the location of their reproductive organs. Quadripedal animals mate coitus more ferarum because their limb function does not permit otherwise, again suggesting that this property of humans is merely a byproduct of bipedalism. Although it should be noted that bonobos are also known to frequently use 'missionary position', and to not be stringently limited to 'heat' seasons. The vagina, (from Latin, literally sheath or scabbard ) is the tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles. ... This list of sex positions includes descriptions of various forms of sexual intercourse and other sexual acts between people. ...

Swimming

Many mammals are better native swimmers than apes: Humans, due to being bi-pedal and situated vertically rather than horizontally, can swim well enough to get back to dry land.

Swimming among humans and apes (some, but not all, can learn to swim^{[citation needed]}) is not innate, and must be learned. Infants are capable of the equivalent of underwater paddling and breath hold, though they cannot keep their noses above the surface. Humans have slight webbing between the fingers compared to many other apes, but some apes such as Kloss's gibbon also have webbing between the fingers.

Also, as exercise physiologists may note, of all exercise types, swimming far and away puts the least strain on human bones and joints. Whereas running, jumping, climbing and virtually all other forms of land-based physical activity put undue and often injurious strain on human joints, swimming is rarely, if ever, deleterious to the human skeleton.

Apart from being the only coordinated activity that human infants seem naturally able to perform, it is also the one strenuous activity not normally associated with skeletal trauma.

Traits atypical of aquatic or semi-aquatic mammals

Many features humans possess are not common amongst aquatic or semi-aquatic mammals:

• large ears
• long limbs
• inability to see under water effectively (although Moken have better underwater vision than other people (Gislén et al. 2003))
• long hair on top of head which interferes with streamlining

The Moken (Sometimes called Sea Gypsies) are an ethnic group with about 2000 to 3000 members who maintain a nomadic, sea-based culture. ...

Vagueness

Since the 1960s, the theory hasn't changed much nor increased its testable predictions; in most respects it has become less specific as objections have been proposed.^[9] The theory has become less specific as to time period ranging from many thousands of years ago to millions. The theory is purported to explain bipedalism several million years ago, hairlessness many thousands of years ago ^[10], or the increased fat much more recently. The water source is either freshwater or seawater or some combination of the two, often depending on the objection or trait the theory is explaining. To deflect from these problems some proponents become more vague on the number of aquatic stages suggested. Rather than suggesting an aquatic stage of evolution, some proponents have been reduced to suggesting some general association with water (which is true of many, indeed most, mammals) or more association with water than that of chimpanzees or other apes.^[11]

This vagueness and the many different versions of the theory make the theory impossible to evaluate scientifically. This, combined with, the lack of evidence makes suggestions concerning the validity of AAH seem like special pleading. Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... Special pleading is a form of spurious argumentation where a position in a dispute introduces favorable details or excludes unfavorable details by alleging a need to apply additional considerations without proper criticism of these considerations themselves. ...

Arguments rather than evidence

Rather than citing evolutionary or fossil evidence, proponents of aquatic ape hypothesis often rely on arguments about how certain human morphological characteristic are only or heavily restricted to aquatic mammals. This is, opponents claim, an argument from ignorance; simply because another explanation is not forthcoming does not mean that there is no other explanation. Comparing human morphology to that of other mammals requires one to ignore all the known ways humans are different from other mammals: full time bipedalism, use and control of fire, use of more advanced technology, large brains. Anthropology is finding explanations for these characteristics and typically they heavily relate to other unique characteristic of humans. Theories which not only explain the characteristics but have evidence to support the idea that they are the actual cause. The argument from ignorance, also known as argumentum ad ignorantiam (appeal to ignorance [1]) or argument by lack of imagination, is a logical fallacy in which it is claimed that a premise is true only because it has not been proven false, or that a premise is false only because...

Attacks on proponents

Although it has very little to do with the theory itself, many skeptics of the aquatic ape hypothesis attack the proponents of the hypothesis, rather than address the hypothesis itself. Ad hominem attacks have been repeatedly launched against supporters of the theory. Much has been made of the fact that Alister Hardy pondered the role of telepathy on evolution.^[12] Also subject to ridicule have been lesser claims made by some proponents in non-scholarly works, such as a suggestion the mermaids are some kind of race memory of an aquatic stage.^[13] Others have gone so far as to parody the theory, such as with the Pliocene Pussy Cat Theory, which suggests that early humans used cats to hunt for them. It has been suggested that Personal attack be merged into this article or section. ... Sir Alister Hardy (1896 - 1985) was an Oxford-educated marine biologist, expert on zooplankton and marine ecosystems. ... Telepathy, from the Greek τῆλε, tele, remote; and πάθεια, patheia, to be effected by, describes the hypothetical transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the five classical senses. ...

The AAT Debate

The aquatic ape hypothesis provokes fierce and often acrimonious contention. Skeptics criticize the lack of direct fossil evidence (declining to recognize evidence based on morphological and behavioural characteristics); the sometimes amateurish way in which the theory is presented; and the occasional over-emphasis of tenuous arguments.^{[Who says this?]} FOSSIL is a standard for allowing serial communication for telecommunications programs under DOS. FOSSIL is an acronym for Fido Opus Seadog Standard Interface Layer. ...

Proponents complain about a dismissive and superior attitude; attacks on methods and personalities rather than substance; misrepresenting the degree of aquaticism being assumed; and the failure to provide land-based alternative hypotheses that survive the very criticisms leveled at AAT.^{[Who says this?]}

AAT In Popular Culture

• In the album This Toilet Earth by thrash metal band GWAR the song The Insidious Soliloquy Of Skulhedface features the lyrics: "I am he who has been him back when man swam Pangean seas as aquatic apes."

• In the River Jackson play Otherwise, the aquatic ape theory is referenced as if having been accepted as scientific fact.

• In Michael Crichton's novel Next the passage: "According to her reading, the loss of hair had occurred after human beings separated from chimps. The usual explanation was that human beings had become for a time swamp creatures, or water creatures. Because most mammals were hairy their coats of fur were necessary to help maintain their internal temperature. But water mammals, such as dolphins and whales had lost their hair in order to be streamlined. And people, too, had lost their hair." The aquatic ape theory is addressed as being the primary model for human evolution.

• In Mark Devon's book The Origin of Emotions 1.0, the aquatic ape theory is referenced as if having been accepted as scientific fact.

This Toilet Earth is the fourth album released by novelty rock/heavy metal/punk band Gwar. ... Thrash metal is a subgenre of heavy metal music, one of the extreme metal subgenres that is characterised by its high speed and aggression. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Michael Crichton (born October 23, 1942, pronounced [1]) is an American author, film producer, film director, and television producer. ... Next is a 2006 novel by Michael Crichton. ...

References

Sources

• Bender, Renato; Verhaegen, Marc & Oser, Nicole (1997): Der Erwerb menschlicher Bipedie aus der Sicht der Aquatic Ape Theory. Anthropologischer Anzeiger 55 (1), 1-14.
• Bender, Renato and Oser, Nicole (1997): Gottesanbeterinnen, Maulwürfe und Menschen. Unipress 95, 20-26.
• Bender, Renato (1999): Die evolutionsbiologische Grundlage des menschlichen Schwimmens, Tauchens und Watens: Konvergenzforschung in den Terrestrisierungshypothesen und in der Aquatic Ape Theory. Diploma Thesis; Institut of Sport and Sport Science, University of Bern.
• Bender-Oser, Nicole: Die Aquatile Hypothese zum Ursprung des Menschen: Max Westenhöfer's Theorie und ihre Bedeutung für die Anthropologie (2004). - Medical Dissertation, Institut of History of Medicine, University of Bern.
• Cameron, D. W., Groves, C. P. "Bones, Stones and Molecules ('Out of Africa' and Human Origins)". Elsevier (Sydney) (2004).
• Campbell N. A. and Reece, J. B. (2006): Biologie. 6. ed. Pearson Studium, München. (this German edition is based on the 6. American edition, but certainly considering some parts of the 8. American edition. The 7. American edition does not contain the pro AAT statement, as far as we know [Renato Bender and Nicole Bender-Oser]).
• Crawford, M. A; Bloom, M. Broadhurst, C. L.; Schmidt, W. F., Cunnane, S. C; Galli, C., Ghebremeskel, K., Linseisen, F., Lloyd-Smith, J., Parkington, J. E. "Evidence for the unique function of docosahexanoic acid (DHA) during the evolution of the modern hominid brain." Lipids 34, S39-S47, (2000).
• Ellis, D. V. "Proboscis monkey and aquatic ape." Sarawak Mus J 36, 251-262, (1986).
• Ellis, D. V. "Wetlands or Aquatic Ape? Availability of food resources." Nutrition and Health, 9, 205-217, (1993).
• Ellis, D. V. "Human Ancestors in Wetland Ecosystems." ReVision 18(2), 8-12, (1995).
• Gislén, A. et al., 2003. Superior underwater vision in a human population of sea Gypsies. Current Biology 13: 833-836. http://www.current-biology.com/content/article/abstract?uid=PIIS0960982203002902 See also Pilcher, Helen R., 2003. How to see shells on the sea floor, http://www.nature.com/nsu/030512/030512-14.html
• Hardy, A.C. "Was man more aquatic in the past?" New Scientist, 7,642-645 (1960).
• Kuliukas, A., "Wading for Food: The Driving Force of the Evolution of Bipedalism." Nutrition and Health, 16(4), 267-290, (2002). html
• Langdon, J.H., "Umbrella hypotheses and parsimony in human evolution: a critique of the Aquatic Ape Hypothesis." Journal of Human Evolution 33, 479-494 (1997),
• Lowenstein, J. M., Zihlman, A. L. "The Wading Ape - A Watered-Down Version of Human Evolution". Oceans 17, 3-6, (1980)
• MacLarnon, A. M., Hewitt, G. P. "The Evolution of Human Speech: The Role of Enhanced Breathing Control." American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 109, 341-363, (1999).
• Montgomery, D. "Seashore Man and African Eve", Lulu, 2007, ISBN 978-84753-811-6. http://www.sondela.co.uk/Aqua/aquaindex.htm]
• Morgan, Elaine (1982). The Aquatic Ape. Stein & Day Pub. ISBN 0-285-62509-8. 
• Morgan, Elaine (1990). The Scars of Evolution. Souvenir Press. ISBN 0-285-62996-4. 
• Morgan, Elaine (1997). The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis. Souvenir Press. ISBN 0-285-63377-5. 
• Pagel M., Bodmer, W., "A naked ape would have fewer parasites" Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 270 (2003) S117 - S119, DOI 10.1098/rsbl.2003.0041, URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2003.0041
• Seedhouse, E., The Spleen in the Spotlight, January 2003, Deeper blue [2].
• Tobias, P. V. "Water and Human Evolution." Out There. 3, 38-44, (1998).
• Tobias, P. V. "Some aspects of the multifaceted dependence of early humanity on water." Nutrition and Health, 16, 13-17, (2002).
• Verhaegen, M., Puech, P-F., Munro, S., "Aquarboreal Ancestors?" Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 17, 212-217 (2002).
• Williams, MF, "Morphological evidence of marine adaptations in human kidneys" Medical Hypotheses Volume 66, Issue 2 , (2006) Pages 247-257

New Scientist is a weekly international science magazine covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English-speaking audience. ... Elaine Morgan is a Welsh feminist writer, best known for her television work. ... Elaine Morgan is a Welsh feminist writer, best known for her television work. ... Elaine Morgan is a Welsh feminist writer, best known for her television work. ...

See also

• Aquatic adaptation
• Human evolution
• Savanna theory
• Sea of Afar

This article needs cleanup. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... It was commonly believed that early hominids left the jungle to live on the open plains of Africa. ... MODIS satellite image of the Afar Depression and surrounding regions of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabia, and the Horn of Africa. ...

External links

Neutral

• Aquatic ape theory discussion group – specifically devoted to discussing aquatic ape theory, including a lot of files and links.
• The Aquatic Ape: Fact or Fiction – proceedings from the Valkenburg Conference 1987. Souvenir Press, 1991, ISBN 0-285-63033-4.
• Water and human evolution – proceedings from the Gent Conference 1999.
• Wisconsin Primate Research Centre – a list of pro- and con- pages on the web.
• Water and human evolution – opinion of professor Phillip Tobias on the aquatic ape theory.

Pro-aquatic ape hypothesis

• Morphological evidence of marine adaptations in human kidneys A 2006 Medical Hypotheses research article by Marcel F. Williams
• A Critique of Jim Moore's 'Aquatic Ape Theory: Sink or Swim?' Web Site - (see below).
• The Aquatic Ape Theory - an argument for the hypothesis by Elaine Morgan.
• Aquatic Ape Info - by Dewi Morgan (grandson of Elaine Morgan).
• Aquatic Ape Theory: The Most Plausible Explanation of Human Origins - from Riverapes.com.
• Publications and presentations on the aquatic ape hypothesis by Kuliukas
• Scars of Evolution (audio) - a BBC Radio 4 radio documentary.
• The role of floods in ape evolution - a BBC article.
• Seashore Man and African Eve A search for the origins and evolution of humankind in Africa - Denis Montgomery

Anti-aquatic ape hypothesis

• Aquatic Ape Theory: Sink or Swim?
• Did humans descend from 'aquatic apes'? - a Staff Report on the aquatic ape hypothesis by The Straight Dope.
• Pliocene pussy cat theory

v • d • e The great apes
Extant genera	Pongo · Gorilla · Pan · Homo
Extant species	Bornean Orangutan · Sumatran Orangutan · Western Gorilla · Eastern Gorilla · Common Chimp · Bonobo · Human
Great ape study	Aquatic ape hypothesis · Great ape language · Jane Goodall
Legal status	Personhood · Research ban · Declaration · Kinshasa Declaration · Great Ape Project · Survival Project
See also...	Bushmeat · Ape extinction · List of notable apes · Human evolution

Genera The hominids are the members of the biological family Hominidae (the great apes), which includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. ... Type species Simia pygmaeus Linnaeus, 1760 Orangutan distribution Species Pongo pygmaeus Pongo abelii The orangutans are two species of great apes known for their intelligence and their long arms and reddish-brown hair. ... Type species Troglodytes gorilla Savage, 1847 distribution of Gorilla Species Gorilla gorilla Gorilla beringei The gorilla, the largest of the living primates, is a ground-dwelling omnivore that inhabits the forests of Africa. ... Type species Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 distribution of Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often shortened to chimp, is the common name for the two extant species in the genus Pan. ... Species Homo sapiens See text for extinct species. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 537 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1466 × 1636 pixel, file size: 307 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Original caption: Skelett des Menschen (1) und des Gorillas (2), unnatürlich gestreckt. ... Binomial name Pongo pygmaeus (Linnaeus, 1760) The Bornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is a species of orangutan native to the island of Borneo. ... The Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii) is the rarest of the 2 species of orangutan. ... Binomial name Gorilla gorilla Savage, 1847 Subspecies G. g. ... Binomial name Gorilla beringei Matschie, 1903 Subspecies G. b. ... Binomial name Pan troglodytes (Blumenbach, 1775) distribution of Common Chimpanzee. ... Binomial name Schwarz, 1929 Bonobo distribution The Bonobo (Pan paniscus), until recently usually called the Pygmy Chimpanzee and less often the Dwarf or Gracile Chimpanzee,[3] is one of the two species comprising the chimpanzee genus, Pan. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: wise man or knowing man) in the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... Research into non-human Great Ape language has generated a great deal of evidence suggesting that apes are capable of using sophisticated communication with humans and other apes. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... Families 15, See classification A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans. ... Advocates of Great Ape personhood consider common chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans (the hominid apes) to be persons. ... A Great Ape research ban, or severe restrictions on the use of non-human great apes in research, is currently in place in the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany and Japan, and has been proposed in Austria. ... The Great Ape Project, founded by Italian philosopher Paola Cavalieri and Australian philosopher Peter Singer, is campaigning to have the United Nations endorse a Declaration on Great Apes. ... This article or section is missing references or citation of sources. ... The logo of The Great Ape Project, which aims to expand moral equality to great apes, and to foster greater understanding of them by humans. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Ape extinction, particularly great ape extinction, is one of the most widely held biodiversity concerns. ... This is a list of apes of encyclopedic interest. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...