Arabic is a Semitic language. See Arabic language for more information on the language in general. This article describes the grammar of Classical Arabic. 14th century BCE diplomatic letter in Akkadian, found in Tell Amarna. ... Arabic ( or just ) is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

History

Due to the rapid expansion of Islam in the 8th century, many people learned Arabic as a lingua franca. For this reason, the earliest grammatical treatises on Arabic are often written by non-native speakers. The earliest grammarian who is known to us is ʿAbd Allāh ibn Abī Isḥāq (died AD 735/6, AH 117). The efforts of three generations of grammarians culminated in the book of the Persian scholar Sibāwayhi (ca. 760–793). For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... Lingua franca, literally Frankish language in Italian, was originally a mixed language consisting largely of Italian plus a vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic and used for communication throughout the Middle East. ... Ê¿Abd Allāh ibn AbÄ« Isḥāq (died AD 735 / AH 117) is the earliest known grammarian of the Arabic language. ... Events Abkhazia becomes independent, and will remain such until the 15th century Births Alcuin, missionary and bishop (approximate date) Deaths May 25 - Bede, English Historian and monk Categories: 735 ... The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar (Arabic: التقويم الهجري; at-taqwÄ«m al-hijrÄ«; Persian: تقویم هجري قمری ‎ taqwÄ«m-e hejri-ye qamari; also called the Hijri calendar) is the calendar used to date events in many predominantly Muslim countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate... The Persians of Iran (officially named Persia by West until 1935 while still referred to as Persia by some) are an Iranian people who speak Persian (locally named Fârsi by native speakers) and often refer to themselves as ethnic Iranians as well. ... Sibawayh (سيبويه Sîbawayh in Arabic, سیبویه Sibuyeh in Persian) was a linguist of Persian origin born ca. ... Events Maya civilization city of Dos Pilas is abandoned. ... Events Vikings sack the monastery of Lindisfarne, Northumbria. ...

Traditionally, the grammatical sciences are divided into five branches:

• al-luġah (lexicon) concerned with collecting and explaining vocabulary
• at-taṣrīf (morphology) determining the form of the individual words
• an-naḥw (syntax) primarily concerned with inflection (iʿrāb) which had already been lost in dialects.
• al-ištiqāq (derivation) examining the origin of the words
• al-balāġah (rhetoric) which elucidates construct quality

The Arabic word ( ) designates the system of nominal and adjectival suffixes of Classical Arabic. ...

Phonology

Main article: Arabic phonology

Classical Arabic has 28 consonantal phonemes (including two semi-vowels), originally corresponding to the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet. (By Qur'anic times, however, the letter alif no longer represented a glottal stop, but a long [a:]. As a result, a diacritic symbol, hamza, was introduced to represent this sound. In addition, some of these phonemes have coalesced in the various modern dialects, while new phonemes have been introduced through borrowing or phonemic splits.) Arabic has six vowel phonemes (three short vowels and three long vowels); they appear as various allophones, depending on the preceding consonant. Short vowels are not usually represented in written language, although they may be indicated with diacritics. (See: Arabic alphabet.) The Arabic language has a standard pronunciation, which is basically the one used to recite the Quran. ... In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible turbulence. ... In human language, a phoneme is the theoretical representation of a sound. ... Semivowels (also called semiconsonants or glides, though these are now dispreferred) are non-syllabic vowels that form diphthongs with syllabic vowels. ... The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing languages such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and others. ... Alif ﺍ is the first letter of the Arabic alphabet. ... Example of a letter with a diacritic A diacritical mark or diacritic, also called an accent, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation or to distinguish between similar words. ... Hamza () is a letter in the Arabic alphabet, representing the glottal stop . ... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme. ... The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing languages such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and others. ...

List of phonemes as transliterated in this article (in DIN 31635, see also Romanization of Arabic): DIN 31635 is a DIN standard for the transliteration of the Arabic language. ... Due to the fact that the Arabic language has a number of phonemes that have no equivalent in English or other European languages, a number of different transliteration methods have been invented to represent certain Arabic characters, due to various conflicting goals. ...

• 26 consonants: ʾ (hamza:ء), b (ب), t (ت), ṯ (ث), ǧ (ج), ḥ (ح), ḫ (خ), d (د), ḏ (ذ), r (ر), z (ز), s (س), š (ش), ṣ (ص), ḍ (ض), ṭ (ط), ẓ (ظ), ʿ (ع), ġ (غ), f (ف), q (ق), k (ك), l (ل), m (م), n (ن), h ()ه
• 2 semi-vowels: w (و), y (ي)
• 6 vowels: a ā i ī u ū

Note that Arabic is particularly rich in uvular, pharyngeal, and pharyngealized ("emphatic") sounds. The emphatic sounds are generally considered to be ṣ, ḍ, ṭ, and ẓ. (Sometimes q is wrongly included — wrongly, because only the four emphatics, and not q, cause assimilation of emphasis to an adjacent non-emphatic consonant.) Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. ... A pharyngeal consonant is a type of consonant which is articulated with the root of the tongue against the pharynx. ... Pharyngealisation is a secondary feature of phonemes in a language. ... Emphatic consonant is a term widely used in Semitic linguistics to describe one of a series of obstruent consonants which originally contrasted with series of both voiced and voiceless obstruents. ...

It is generally believed that Classical Arabic phonology is extremely conservative, and is close to that of Proto-Semitic; only the South Arabian languages are more conservative in their phonology. The six vowels are inherited without change from Proto-Semitic, and of the 29 Proto-Semitic consonants, only one has been lost (/ʃ/, which merged with /s/). In addition, various sounds have been changed. An original voiceless lateral fricative /ɬ/ became /ʃ/, restoring a previously lost sound. Another complex lateral sound, /ɮˁ/ (voiced pharyngealized lateral fricative), became /dˁ/ with loss of the lateral sound, although the original sound appears to have still existed at the time of the Qur'an. (Hence the Classical appellation 'luġatu l-ḍād' or "language of the ḍād" for Arabic, where 'ḍād' is the letter corresponding to this sound, which was considered by Arabs to be the most unusual sound in Arabic.) An original /p/ became /f/, and /ɡ/ became palatalized /ɡʲ/ at the time of the Qur'an, and /ʤ/ in the standard modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic. (The dialects variously have /ʤ/ (Arabian Peninsula), /ɡ/ (Cairo), /ʒ/ (North Africa), /j/ (Persian Gulf area), and original /ɡʲ/ (a few isolated pockets here and there).) Other changes may have occurred as well, especially in the emphatic consonants, depending on how Proto-Semitic is reconstructed. Proto-Semitic is the hypothetical proto-language of the Semitic languages. ... Old South Arabian is a geographic term for four closely related languages spoken in the southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula. ... The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ... The comparative method (in comparative linguistics) is a technique used by linguists to demonstrate genetic relationships between languages. ...

The syllable structure of Arabic is such that there may be clusters of two, but not of three consecutive consonants. A cluster of two consonants at the beginning of an utterance will be preceded by an auxiliary vowel (alif al-waṣl). A syllable (Ancient Greek: ) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. ...

Noun

State

Nouns (and their modifying adjectives) are either definite or indefinite (there is an article for the definite state only). A noun is definite if it has the definite article prefix (al-), if it has a suffixed pronoun (kalbu-ha l-kabīr "her big dog"), if it is inherently definite by being a proper noun (Miṣru l-qadīmah, "old Cairo"), or if it is in a genitive construction (Iḍāfa, status constructus) with a definite noun or nouns (bintu l-maliki, "the daughter of the king"). In linguistics, a noun or noun substantive is a lexical category which is defined in terms of how its members combine with other grammatical kinds of expressions. ... In grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun (called the adjectives subject), giving more information about what the noun or pronoun refers to. ... Definite Article is the title of British comedian Eddie Izzards 1996 performance released on video and CD. The video/DVD and CD performances were both recorded on different nights at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London, England. ... An article is a word that is put next to a noun to indicate the type of reference being made to the noun. ... Look up prefix in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that Ending (linguistics) be merged into this article or section. ... In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase with or without a determiner, such as you and they in English. ... A proper noun is a noun that picks out a unique entity. ... The genitive case is a grammatical case that indicates a relationship, primarily one of possession, between the noun in the genitive case and another noun. ... The status constructus or construct state is a noun form occurring in Afro-Asiatic languages. ...

Article

Main article: Al-

The article (adātu-t-taʿrīf) al- is indeclinable and expresses definite state of a noun of any gender and number. It is also prefixed to each of that noun's modifying adjectives. The initial vowel (hamzatu-l-waṣl), is volatile in the sense that it disappears in sandhi, the article becoming mere -l- (although the alif is retained in orthography in any case for clarity). Al- is not a permanent component of words, as shown here with , the Arabic for Bahrain. ... Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. ...

Also, the l is assimilated to a number of consonants (dentals and sibilants), so that in these cases, the article in pronunciation is expressed only by geminating the initial consonant of the noun (while in orthography, the writing alif lam is retained, and the gemination may be expressed by putting šadda on the following letter). Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from the revision dated 2005-07-20, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ... Shadda (Arabic ‎ [sign of] emphasis, also called by the verbal noun to the same root, Tashdid ‎ emphasis), is one of the diacritics (Harakat) used with the Arabic alphabet, marking a long consonant (geminate). ...

The consonants causing assimilation (trivially including l) are: t, ṯ, d, ḏ, r, z, s, š, ṣ, ḍ, ṭ, ẓ, l, n. These 14 letters are called 'solar letters' (ḥuruf šamsiyyat), while the remaining 14 are called 'lunar letters' (ḥuruf qamariyyat). The solar letters all have in common that they are dental, alveolar and postalveolar consonants in the classical language, and the lunar consonants are not. (ج ǧīm is pronounced postalveolar in most varieties of Arabic today, but was actually a palatalized voiced velar plosive in the classical language, and is thus considered a lunar letter; nevertheless, in colloquial Arabic, the ج ǧīm is often spoken as if solar.) Dentals are consonants such as t, d, n, and l articulated with either the lower or the upper teeth, or both, rather than with the gum ridge as in English. ... Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets) of the superior teeth. ... Postalveolar (or palato-alveolar) consonants are consonants articulated with the tip of the tongue between the alveolar ridge (the place of articulation for alveolar consonants) and the palate (the place of articulation for palatal consonants). ... In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible turbulence. ... The Arabic language is classified as a Semitic language. ... Palatalization means pronouncing a sound nearer to the hard palate, making it more like a palatal consonant; this is towards the front of the mouth for a velar or uvular consonant, but towards the back of the mouth for a front (e. ... The voiced velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. ...

Inflection

Main article: Iʿrāb

Arabic has three grammatical cases roughly corresponding to: nominative, genitive and accusative, and three numbers: singular, dual and plural. Normally, singular nouns take the ending -u(n) in the nominative, -i(n) in the genitive and -a(n) in the accusative. (Some exceptional nouns, known as diptotes, never take the final n, and have the suffix -a in the genitive except when preceded by the definite article al-.) However, case is not shown in standard orthography, with the exception of indefinite accusative nouns ending in any letter but ta marbuta or hamza, where the -a(n) "sits" upon an alif added to the end of the word (the alif still shows up in unvowelled texts). When speaking or reading aloud, articulating the case ending is optional. Technically, every noun has such an ending, although at the end of a sentence, no inflection is pronounced, even in formal speech, because of the rules of 'pause'. The Arabic word ( ) designates the system of nominal and adjectival suffixes of Classical Arabic. ... In linguistics, declension is a feature of inflected languages: generally, the alteration of a noun to indicate its grammatical role. ... The nominative case is a grammatical case for a noun, which generally marks the subject of a verb, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments. ... This article or section cites very few or no references or sources. ... The accusative case (abbreviated ACC) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb. ... The Arabic word ( ) designates the system of nominal and adjectival suffixes of Classical Arabic. ... Hamza () is a letter in the Arabic alphabet, representing the glottal stop . ... Alif ﺍ is the first letter of the Arabic alphabet. ...

Number

Arabic has three numbers: singular, dual (denoting two of a given noun) and plural. The word singular may refer to one of several concepts. ... Look up Dual in Wiktionary, the free dictionary A dual is a pair or a grouping of two. ... Look up Plural in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Plural is a grammatical number, typically referring to more than one of the referent in the real world. ...

The dual is formed by suffixing -āni to the noun stem in the nominative and -ayni in the accusative and genitive. The "ni" is dropped in iḍāfa.

The plurals are formed in two ways. The "sound plurals" are formed by the addition of a suffix. Masculine sound plurals take the forms "-ūna" in the nominative and "-īna" in the genitive and accusative. These do not change whether the noun is definite or indefinite. Feminine indefinite sound plurals take "-ātun" in the nominative and "-ātin" in the accusative and genitive. Feminine definite sound plurals take "-ātu" in the nominative and "-āti" in the accusative and genitive. The broken plurals are formed by altering the vowel structure according to one of about five established patterns. Some nouns have two or more plural forms, usually to distinguish between different meanings. In linguistics, broken plurals is a grammatical phenomenon typical in many Semitic languages of the Middle East and Ethiopia in which a singular noun is broken to form a plural by having its root consonant embedded in a different frame, rather than by merely adding a prefix or suffix to...

Gender

Arabic has two genders, expressed by pronominal, verbal and adjectival agreement. Agreement with numerals shows a peculiar 'polarity', c.f. the section on numerals. In linguistics, grammatical genders, also called noun classes, are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words; every noun must belong to one of the classes and there should be very few which belong to several classes at once. ...

The genders are usually referred to as masculine and feminine, but the situation is more complicated than that. The 'feminine' singular forms are also used to express 'singulatives', which are singulars of collective nouns meaning irrationals of both grammatical genders.

The marker for the feminine gender is a -t- suffix, but some nouns without this marker also take feminine agreement (e.g. ʾumm 'mother', ʾarḍ 'earth'). Already in Classical Arabic, the -t marker was not pronounced in pausa. It is written with a special letter (ta marbuta) indicating that a t sound is to be pronounced in sandhi, but not in pausa. See Pausha for the Hindu month Pausa (Latin for break) in linguistics refers to the end of an utterance. ... Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. ...

Genitive construction (Iḍāfa)

A noun may be defined more closely by a subsequent noun in the genitive (Iḍāfa, literally "an addition"). The relation is hierarchical; the first term (al-muḍāf) governs the second term (al-muḍāf ilayhi). E. g. baytu raǧulin 'the house of a man', 'a man's house'. The construction as a whole represents a nominal phrase, the state of which is inherited from the state of the second term. The first term must "be in construct state", namely, it cannot carry the definite article nor the tanween. Genitive constructions of multiple terms are possible. In this case, all but the final term take construct state, and all but the first member take genitive case.

This construction is typical for a Semitic language. In many cases the two members become a fixed coined phrase, the iḍāfa being used as the equivalent of nominal composition in some Indo-European languages (which does not exist in Semitic). baytu-ṭ-ṭalabati thus may mean either 'house of the (certain, known) students' or 'the student hostel'.

Nisba

The Nisba (an-nisbatu) is a common suffix to form adjectives of relation or pertinence. The suffix is -iyy- for masculine and -iyyat- for feminine gender (in other words, it is -iyy- and is inserted before the gender marker). E. g. lubnānu 'Lebanon', lubnāniyyun 'Lebanese'.

A construction noun + nisba-adjective is often equivalent to nominal composition in English and other languages (solar cell is equivalent to sun cell).

Pronoun

A pronominal paradigm consists of 12 forms: In singular and plural, the 2nd and 3rd persons differentiate gender, while the 1st person does not. In the dual, there is no 1st person, and only a single form for each 2nd and 3rd person. Traditionally, the pronouns are listed in order 3rd, 2nd, 1st.

Personal pronouns

Enclitic pronouns

Enclitic forms of the pronoun (aḍ-ḍamāʾiru al-muttaṣilatu) may be affixed to nouns (representing genitive case, i. e. possession) and to verbs (representing accusative, i. e. a direct object). Most of them are clearly related to the full personal pronouns. They are identical in form in both cases, except for the 1st person singular, which is -ī after nouns (genitive) and -nī after verbs (accusative).

Demonstratives

There are two demonstratives (asmāʾu al-ʾišārati), near-deictic ('this') and far-deictic ('that'): In pragmatics and linguistics, deixis (Greek: δειξις display, demonstration, or reference, the meaning point of reference in contemporary linguistics having been taken over from Chrysippus, Stoica 2,65) is a process whereby words or expressions rely absolutely on context. ...

• hadha (هذا), f. hadhaاhi (هذه), pl. hāʾulāʾi (هاألاإ) 'this, these'
• dhalika (ذلك), f. tilka (تلك), pl. ʾulāʾika (ألاإك) 'that, those'

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

Cardinal numerals (al-aʿdād al-aṣliyyatu (الأعداد الأصليّة)) from 1-10 (zero is ṣifr, from which the English words "cipher" and "zero" are ultimately derived) This article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. ... 0 (zero) is both a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. ...

• 1 waḥidun (واحدٌ)
• 2 iṯnāni (إثنانٌ)
• 3 ṯalāṯatun (ثلاثةٌ)
• 4 arbaʿatun (أربعةٌ)
• 5 ḫamsatun (خمسةٌ)
• 6 sittatun (ستّةٌ)
• 7 sabʿatun (سبعةٌ)
• 8 ṯamāniyatun (ثمانيّةٌ)
• 9 tisʿatun (تسعةٌ)
• 10 ʿašaratun (عشرةٌ)

The numerals 1 and 2 are adjectives; 3-10 are diptotes (the ending -(t)un is dropped in oral usage).

Numerals 3-10 have a peculiar rule of agreement known as polarity: A feminine referrer agrees with a numeral in masculine gender and vice versa, e.g. ṯalāṯu fatayātin (ثلاثُ فتياتٍ) 'three girls'. The noun counted takes indefinite genitive plural (as the attribute in a genitive construct.)

Numerals 11-19 are indeclinable, perpetually in the indefinite accusative. Numbers 11 and 12 show gender agreement in the ones, and 13-19 show polarity in the ones. The gender of عشرة is always opposite that of the ones place. The noun counted takes indefinite accusative singular.

• 11 aḥada ʿašara (أحدَ عشر)
• 12 iṯnā ʿašara (إثنا عشر)
• 13 ṯalāṯata ʿašara (ثلاثةَ عشر)

The numerals 20-99 are followed by a noun in the indefinite accusative singular as well. There is agreement in gender with the numerals 1 and 2, and polarity for numerals 3-9.

• 20 ʿišrūna (عشرون) (dual of '10')
• 21 wāḥidun wa ʿišrūna (واحد وعشرون)
• 22 iṯnāni wa ʿišrūna (إثنان وعشرون)
• 23 ṯalāṯatu wa ʿišrūna (ثلاثة وعشرون)
• 30 ṯalāṯūna (ثلاتون)
• 40 arbaʿūna (أربعون)

Whole hundreds, thousands etc. appear as first terms of genitive constructions, e.g. alfu laylati wa laylatu (ألف ليلة وليلة) '1001 nights'.

• 100 miʾatu (مئة)
• 1000 alfu (ألف)

Fractions of a whole smaller than "half" are expressed by the structure sg. fuʿl (فعل), pl. afʿāl (أفعال).

• niṣfun (نصف) "half"
• ṯulṯun (ثلث) "one third"
• ṯulṯāni (ثلثان) "two thirds"
• rubʿun (ربع) "one quarter"
• ṯalaṯatu arbāʿin (ثلاثة أرباع) "three quarters"

etc.

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals (al-aʿdād at-tartiyabiyyat) higher than "first" are formed using the structure fāʿilun, fāʿilatun:

• m. awwalu, f. ūlā "first"
• m. ṯānin, f. ṯāniyat "second"
• m. ṯāliṯun, f. ṯāliṯatun "third"
• m. rābiʿun, f. rābiʿatun "fourth"

etc.

They are adjectives, hence, there is agreement in gender with the noun, not polarity as with the cardinal numbers.

Verb

As in many other Semitic languages, Arabic verb formation is based on a (usually) triconsonantal root, which is not a word in itself but contains the semantic core. The consonants k-t-b, for example, indicate 'write', q-r-ʾ indicate 'read', ʾ-k-l indicate 'eat' etc.; Words are formed by supplying the root with a vowel structure and with affixes. Traditionally, Arabic grammarians have used the root f-ʿ-l 'do' as a template to discuss word formation. The personal forms a verb can take correspond to the forms of the pronouns, except that in the 3rd person dual, gender is differentiated, yielding paradigms of 13 forms. In the terminology used to discuss the grammar of the Semitic and some other Afro-Asiatic languages, a triliteral (Arabic: جذر ثلاثي, ǧaḏr thalathi) is a root containing a sequence of three consonants (so also known as a triconsonantal root). ... The root is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. ...

Prefixes and suffixes

In Arabic, the grammatical person and number as well as the mood is designated by a variety of prefixes and suffixes. Most Arabic verbs are regular and follow the pattern detailed below. Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to the participant role of a referent, such as the speaker, the addressee, and others. ... In linguistics, grammatical number is a morphological category characterized by the expression of quantity through inflection or agreement. ...

NOTE:The Arabic example below is the Arabic verb kataba (كتب), "to write". Only the prefixes and suffixes of the verb have been vocalised, the vocalisation of the stems (كَتَب for the past and كْتُب for the present) has been omitted for reasons of legibility.

The perfective aspect is a grammatical aspect. ... The perfective aspect is a grammatical aspect. ... The subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a grammatical mood of the verb that expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), and statements that are contrary to fact. ... The jussive mood is a grammatical mood that indicates commands, permission or agreement with a request. ...

Perfective

In the perfective form, the perfective stem faʿal is affixed with a personal ending, e. g. kataba 'he wrote', qaraʾa 'he read'. The perfective expresses a completed action, i.e. mostly past tense. The second vowel is /a/ in most verbs, but /i/ in some verbs (especially intransitive) and /u/ in a few (especially verbs whose meaning is "be X" or "become X" where X is an adjective, usually naming a permanent or semi-permanent quality, e.g. kabura 'he became big, he grew up'). The perfective aspect is a grammatical aspect. ... In grammar, an intransitive verb is an action verb that takes no object. ...

Imperfective

The imperfective expresses an action in progress, or incompleted, i.e. mostly present tense. There are several vowel patterns (a-a, a-u,a-i) the root can take. The root takes a prefix as well as a suffix to build the verb form. E. g. yaktubu 'he is writing'. Note the co-incidence of 3rd f. sg. and 2nd m. sg. The perfective aspect is a grammatical aspect. ...

Mood

Modal forms can be derived from the imperfective stem: the subjunctive by (roughly speaking) replacing the final vowel by a, the jussive by dropping this a of the subjunctive, and the imperative (only 2nd person) also by dropping the verbal prefix. It has been suggested that prohibitive mood be merged into this article or section. ... The subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a grammatical mood of the verb that expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), and statements that are contrary to fact. ... The jussive mood is a grammatical mood that indicates commands, permission or agreement with a request. ...

The subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses after certain conjunctions. The jussive is used in negation, in negative imperatives, and in the hortative li+jussive. For example: 2. sg. m.:

• imperfect indicative tafʿalu 'you are doing'
• subjunctive an tafʿala 'that you do'
• jussive lā tafʿal 'do not!'
• imperative ifʿal 'do!'.

Voice

Arabic has two verbal voices, active and passive. The passive voice is expressed by a change in vocalization and is normally not expressed in unvocalized writing. For example: In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc. ...

• active faʿala 'he did', yafʿalu 'he is doing' فَعَلَ
• passive fuʿila 'it was done', yufʿalu 'it is being done' فُعِلَ

Weak roots

Roots containing one or two of the radicals w (wāw), y (yā) or ʾ (hamza) often lead to verbs with special phonological rules because these radicals can be influenced by their surroundings. Such verbs are called 'weak' (verba infirma, 'weak verbs') and their paradigms must be given special attention. In the case of hamza, these peculiarities are mainly orthographical, since hamza is not subject to elision (the orthography of hamza and alif is unsystematic due to confusion in early Islamic times). According to the position of the weak radical in the root, the root can be classified into four classes: first weak, second weak, third weak and doubled, where both the second and third radicals are identical. Some roots fall into more than one category at once.

Stem formation

"Derived" verbs are those which do not have just three consonants in the perfect tense, namely, all verbs except the primary verbs (those like kataba). For instance, verbs such as kattaba, kātaba, inkataba, takattaba are called "derived" verbs. Semantically, we would like to be able to say that the meaning of the "derived" verbs somehow "derives" from the meaning of their primary verbs, by operations like the intensive, reflexive, and causative, but in fact the actual meaning of all verbs is unpredictable and needs to be recorded in the lexicon^{[citation needed]}. Classical Arabic has a great number of derived stems, not all of which are still in use^{[citation needed]}. For the modern language, it is mostly sufficient to consider stems I-VIII and X, plus IX for verbs meaning "whiten", "blacken", "yellowen" and so on. intensive refers to an act that is done repetitively or with much force. ... In grammar, a reflexive verb is a verb whose semantic agent and patient (typically represented syntactically by the subject and the direct object) are the same. ...

The exact vocalisation will be dependent on the word form.

Common uses of those stems include:

• faʿʿala is often used to make an intransitive verb transitive. Eg: karuma is "be noble" but karrama is "make (someone) to be noble", or, more idiomatically, to "honor".
• infaʿala gives a passive meaning. Eg: kasara "break" and inkasara "be broken".
• ifʿalla is used only to render stative verbs meaning "to be or become X" where X is a color or physical defect, eg: iḥmarra "turn red, blush" or iṭrašša "go deaf".

A more complete list of meanings is found at Wiktionary's appendix on Arabic verb forms. A stative verb is one which asserts that one of its arguments has a particular property (possibly in relation to its other arguments). ...

Participle

Every verb has a corresponding active participle, and most have passive participles. E.g. muʿallimun 'teacher' is the active participle to stem II. of the root ʿ-l-m ('know').

• The active participle to Stem I is fāʿilun, and the passive participle is mafʿūlun.
• Stems II-X take prefix mu- and nominal endings for both the participles, active and passive. The difference between the two participles is only in the vowel between the last two root letters, which is -i- for active and -a- for passive (e.g. II. active mu-faʿʿil-un, and passive mu-faʿʿal-un').

Verbal Noun (المصدر)

In addition to a participle, there is a verbal noun (in Arabic, مصدر maṣdar, meaning "source") sometimes called a gerund, which is similar to English gerunds and verb-derived nouns of various sorts (e.g. 'running' and 'a run' from 'to run'; 'objection' from 'to object'). As shown by the English examples, its meaning refers both to the act of doing something and (by frequent semantic extension) to its result. One of its syntactic functions is as a verbal complement of another verb, and this usage it corresponds to the English gerund or infinitive (He prevented me from running or He began to run). A verbal noun is a noun formed directly as an inflexion of a verb or a verb stem, sharing at least in part its constructions. ...

• verbal noun formation to stem I is irregular.
• the verbal noun to stem II is tafʿīlun. For example: taʾrīḫun 'date, history' is the verbal noun to stem II. of ʾ-r-ḫ ('date').
• stem III often forms its verbal noun with the feminine form of the passive participle, so for sāʿada, "he helped", produces the verbal noun musāʿadatun. There are also some verbal noun of the form fiʿālun: jāhada, "he strove", yields jihādun (a struggle for a cause or purpose).
• the following are the verbal noun of the remaining common derived stems: IV, afʿala, ifʿālun; V, tafaʿʿala, tafaʿʿulun; VI, tafāʿala, tafāʿulun; VII, infaʿala, infiʿālun; VIII, iftaʿala, iftiʿālun; IX, ifʿalla, ifʿilālun; X, istafʿala, istifʿālun.

For other uses, see Jihad (disambiguation). ...

Syntax

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Classical Arabic tends to prefer the word order VSO (verb before subject) rather than SVO (subject before verb). However, the word order is fairly flexible, since words are tagged by case endings. MSA tends to use SVO word order and allow less word order variation, consistent with modern dialects. (The exception is in relative clauses, where the verb is usually first.) Subject pronouns are normally omitted except for emphasis or when using a participle as a verb (participles are not marked for person). Auxiliary verbs precede main verbs, and prepositions precede their objects. Image File history File links Broom_icon. ...

Adjectives follow the noun they are modifying, and agree with the noun in case, gender, number, and state: For example, "bintun jamīlatun" "a beautiful girl" but "al-bintu l-jamīlatu" "the beautiful girl". (Compare "al-bintu jamīlatun" "the girl is beautiful".) Elative adjectives, however, precede their modifying noun, do not agree with it, and require that the noun be in the genitive case (see below).

Subjects are marked with the nominative case, as are objects in non-verbal sentences. Objects are marked with the accusative, even when they are objects of "kāna/yakūnu" "be". Hence, "al-bintu jamīlatun" "the girl is beautiful" but "al-bintu kānat jamīlatan" "the girl was beautiful". The genitive case is used for nouns that modify other nouns and for the objects of prepositions. There is no dative case; instead, the preposition "li-" is used.

Object pronouns are clitics and are attached to the verb, e.g. arā-hā "I see her". Possessive pronouns are likewise attached to the noun they modify, e.g. "kitābu-hu" "his book". The definite article "al-" is a clitic, as are the prepositions "li-" "to" and "bi-" "in/with" and the conjunctions "ka-" "as" and "fa-" "thus, so". In linguistics, a clitic is an element that has some of the properties of an independent word and some more typical of a bound morpheme. ...

The subject of a sentence can be topicalized and emphasized by moving it to the beginning of the sentence and preceding it with the word "inna". Examples are "innaka anta jamīlun" "YOU are beautiful" or "inna s-samā’a zarqā’u" "THE SKY is blue". (In older texts, "inna" was translated "verily".)

"inna", along with its "sister" terms "anna" ("that", as in "I think that ..."), "inna" ("that" after qāla/yaqūlu "say"), "walakinna" "but" and "ka’anna" "as if" require that they be immediately followed by a noun or attached pronominal suffix, and a following noun must be in the accusative case.

Some other words also govern unexpected cases. For example, "kam" "how many" and "'ayy-" "any" require a following indefinite genitive noun. Elative (comparative/superlative) adjectives behave similarly: "ʾaṭwalu waladin" "the tallest boy".

Numbers behave in a quite complicated fashion. "wāḥid-" "one" and "'iṯnān-" "two" are adjectives, following the noun and agreeing with it. "ṯalāṯat-" "three" through "`ašarat-" "ten" require a following noun in the genitive plural, but agree with the noun in gender, while taking the case required by the surrounding syntax. "'aḥada `ašara" "eleven" through "tis`ata `ašara" "nineteen" require a following noun in the accusative singular, agree with the noun in gender, and are invariable for case, except for "'iṯnā `ašara/'iṯnay `ašara" "twelve". Numbers above this behave entirely as nouns, showing case agreement as required by the surrounding syntax, no gender agreement, and a following noun in a fixed case. "`išrūna" "twenty" through "tis`ūna" "ninety" require the accusative singular; "mi'at-" "hundred" and up require the genitive singular. The numbers themselves decline in various fashions; for example, "`išrūna" "twenty" through "tis`ūna" "ninety" decline as masculine plural nouns, while "mi'at-" "hundred" declines as a feminine singular noun and "'alf-" "thousand" as a masculine singular noun. "mi'at-" "hundred" and "'alf-" "thousand" can themselves be modified by numbers (to form numbers such as 200 or 5,000) and will be declined appropriately. ("mi'atāni" and "200" "'alfāni" "2,000" with dual endings; "ṯalāṯatu 'ālāfin" "3,000" with "'alf" in the plural genitive, but "ṯalāṯu mi'atin" "300" since "mi'at-" appears to have no plural.) In compound numbers, the last number dictates the declension of the associated noun. Large compound numbers can be extremely complicated, e.g.:

• "'alfun wa-tis`u mi'atin wa-tis`un 'asnāni" "1,909 years"
• "ba`da 'alfin wa-tis`i mi'atin wa-tis`in 'asnāni" "after 1,909 years"
• "'arba`atun wa-`išrūna 'alfan wa-ṯamānī-mi'atin wa-ṯalāṯatun wa-sittūna sanatan" "94,863 years"
• "ba`da 'arba`atin wa-`išrīna 'alfan wa-ṯamānī-mi'atin wa-ṯalāṯatin wa-sittīna sanatan" "after 94,863 years"
• "'iṯnā `ašara 'alfan wa-mi'atāni wa-ṯnāni sanatāni" "12,222 years"
• "ba`da 'iṯnay `ašara 'alfan wa-mi'atayni wa-ṯnayni sanatayni" "after 12,222 years"
• "'iṯnā `ašara 'alfan wa-mi'atāni wa-ṯnāni sanatāni" "12,222 years"
• "ba`da 'iṯnay `ašara 'alfan wa-mi'atayni wa-ṯnayni sanatayni" "after 12,222 years"

Adverbials are expressed using adjectives in the indefinite accusative, e.g.: qara’a al-kitāba qirā’atan baṭīʾatan, literally: "he read the book a slow reading", i.e., "He read the book slowly". This type of construction is known as the "absolute accusative."

Notes

See also

• Arabic language
• Literary Arabic
• Varieties of Arabic
• Arabic alphabet
• Romanization of Arabic
• WikiBook: Learn Arabic

Arabic ( or just ) is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. ... Literary Arabic ( the Eloquent Arabic language) or Standard Arabic is the literary and standard register of Classical Arabic used in writing. ... The Arabic language is classified as a Semitic language. ... The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing languages such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and others. ... Due to the fact that the Arabic language has a number of phonemes that have no equivalent in English or other European languages, a number of different transliteration methods have been invented to represent certain Arabic characters, due to various conflicting goals. ...

External links

Software

• Xerox Arabic Morphological Analysis and Generation (uses Java)

Online conjugators

• Arabic verb conjugator

Learning resources

• Classical Arabic Blog