The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice.

Archaeoastronomy (also spelled Archeoastronomy) is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilising archaeological and anthropological evidence. The anthropological study of astronomical practices in contemporary societies is often called ethnoastronomy, although there is no consensus as to whether ethnoastronomy is a separate discipline or is a part of archaeoastronomy. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical traditions. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1224x854, 142 KB) The Sun rising over Stonehenge on the morning of the Summer Solstice (21st June 2005). ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1224x854, 142 KB) The Sun rising over Stonehenge on the morning of the Summer Solstice (21st June 2005). ... Stonehenge in 2004 For other meanings of Stonehenge, see: Stonehenge (disambiguation) Stonehenge is a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument located near Amesbury in the English county of Wiltshire, about 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Diagram of the Earths seasons Solstice is an astronomical term regarding the position of the Sun in relation to the earths equator. ... Radio telescopes are among many different tools used by astronomers Astronomy (Greek: αστρονομία = άστρον + νόμος, astronomia = astron + nomos, literally, law of the stars) is the science of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as auroras and cosmic background radiation). ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word άνθρωπος, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Historical astronomy is the science of analysing historical astronomical data. ... Table of astronomy, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia Astronomy is probably the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with astronomy, and not completely separate from it...

It is most frequently mentioned with astronomical claims regarding Stonehenge or the pyramids of Egypt. The prehistoric monument of Stonehenge has long been studied for its possible connections with ancient astronomy. ... The ancient pyramids of Egypt The pyramids of Egypt, among the largest constructions ever built by man, [1], constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. ...

History of archaeoastronomy

Archaeoastronomy is almost as old as archaeology itself. Heinrich Nissen was arguably the first archaeoastronomer, publishing Das Templum: Antiquarische Untersuchungen in 1869. Other researchers followed. The astronomer Norman Lockyer was active at the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth. His studies included an examinations of Egyptian temples in The Dawn of Astronomy in 1894 and of Stonehenge published as Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered in 1906. The archaeologist Francis Penrose published extensively in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on the astronomical alignment of Greek temples in the Mediterranean in the same period. Archaeoastronomy was, for a while, a respectable subject. The first issue of the archaeological journal Antiquity includes an article on archaeoastronomical research.^[1] 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer or Norman Lockyer (May 17, 1836 – August 16, 1920) was an English scientist and astronomer. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s The 20th century lasted from 1901 to 2000 in the Gregorian calendar (often from (1900 to 1999 in common usage). ... 1894 (MDCCCXCIV) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1906 (MCMVI) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Cover of Cover the first volume of , published in 1665 The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, or Phil. ... The Greeks began to build monumental temples in the first half of the 8th century BC. The temples of Hera at Samos and of Poseidon at Isthmia were among the first erected. ... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ...

Early archaeoastronomy began by surveying alignments of Megalithic stones in the British Isles and sites like Auglish in Co.Derry in an attempt to find statistical patterns

In the British Isles interest in archaeoastronomy waned until the 1960s when the astronomer Gerald Hawkins proposed that Stonehenge was a Neolithic computer. Around the same time the engineer Alexander Thom published his survey results of megalithic sites also proposed widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed.^[2] However, Thom's analysis continued to pose a problem. A re-evaluation of Thom's fieldwork showed that his claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless there was evidence of widespread interest in astronomy associated with megalithic sites. The response from archaeologists was tepid. A few archaeologists such as Euan MacKie accepted Thom’s conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain.^[3] Until the early 1980s most archaeoastronomical research in the United Kingdom was concerned with establishing the existence of astronomical alignments in prehistoric sites by statistical means rather than the social practice of astronomy in ancient times. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x960, 400 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Archaeoastronomy ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x960, 400 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Archaeoastronomy ... WGS-84 (GPS) Coordinates: 54. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into British and Irish Isles. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from 1960 to 1969, inclusive. ... Gerald Stanley Hawkins (1928–2003) was an astronomer and author most famous for his work in the field of archaeoastronomy. ... An array of Neolithic artefacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae Scotland, Europes most complete Neolithic village. ... Professor Alexander Thom (1894 - 1985) was a Scottish engineer most famous for his theory of the Megalithic yard. ... Megalithic tomb, Mane Braz, Brittany Bronze age wedge tomb in the Burren area of Ireland A megalith is a large stone which has been used to construct a structure or monument either alone or with other stones. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... For Wikipedia statistics, see m:Statistics Statistics is the science and practice of developing human knowledge through the use of empirical data expressed in quantitative form. ...

It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments

In the New World, anthropologists began to more fully consider the role of astronomy in Amerindian societies. This approach had access to sources that the prehistory of Europe lacks such as ethnographies^[4] and the historical records of the early colonisers. This allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe. Image File history File linksMetadata Uxmal01-panorama. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Uxmal01-panorama. ... The Maya civilization is a historical Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, its spectacular art and monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. ... Panorama of Uxmal Uxmal (, ) is a large Pre-Columbian ruined city of the Maya civilization in the state of Yucatán, Mexico. ... Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, c. ... Native Americans (also Indians, Aboriginal Peoples, American Indians, First Nations, Alaskan Natives, or Indigenous Peoples of America) are the indigenous inhabitants of The Americas prior to the European colonization, and their modern descendants. ... The term prehistory (Greek words προ = before and ιστορία = history) is usually used to describe the period before written history became available. ... Ethnography (from the Greek ethnos = nation and graphein = writing) refers to the qualitative description of human social phenomena, based on fieldwork. ... For other senses of this word, see history (disambiguation). ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

This came to a head at a meeting sponsored by the IAU in Oxford in 1981.^[5] The methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes.^[6] Nevertheless the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences have continued every four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research,^[7] which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today. Rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky. Logo of the IAU The International Astronomical Union (French: Union astronomique internationale) unites national astronomical societies from around the world. ... Oxford is a city and local government district in Oxfordshire, England, with a population of 134,248 (2001 census). ... 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ...

Methodology

Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites there is no one way practise archaeoastronomy. Despite this it is accepted that Archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because Archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in Archaeology like analogy and homology and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in Astronomy. Analogy is either the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. ... Homology is an important concept in several disciplines: Homology (anthropology) in archaeology and anthropology. ... Accuracy, in science, engineering, industry and statistics, is the degree of conformity of a measured/calculated quantity to its actual (true) value. ...

Artefactual analysis

The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)

In the case of artefacts such as the Sky Disc of Nebra, alleged to be a bronze age artefact depicting the cosmos, the analysis would be similar to typical post-excavation analysis as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artefact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1036x924, 206 KB) Summary Principal fragment of the Antikythera mechanism. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1036x924, 206 KB) Summary Principal fragment of the Antikythera mechanism. ... Diagram of the disk in its current condition (a star and a part of the full moon was restored). ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ...

Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the Antikythera mechanism. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read. The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment) The Antikythera mechanism (Greek: Ο μηχανισμός των Αντικυθήρων transliterated as O mēchanismós tōn Antikythērōn) is an ancient mechanical analog computer (as opposed to digital computer) designed to calculate astronomical positions. ...

Symbolic analysis

Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the petroglyph on various days

In some cases the use of an artefact may be known, but its meaning may not be fully understood. In such cases an examination of the symbolism on the artefact may be necessary. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (286x626, 30 KB) Summary Fajada Butte diagram. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (286x626, 30 KB) Summary Fajada Butte diagram. ...

A mundane example is the presence of astrological symbols found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but Carol van Driel-Murray has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings.^[8] This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time. An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + λόγος, logos, word) is...

More problematic are some petroglyphs. Symbols on rock are one such class of symbol which are occasionally argued to posses astronomical meanings. An example is the Sun Dagger of Fajada Butte which is a glint of sunlight passing over a spiral petroglyph. The location of the dagger on the petroglyph varies throughout the year. At the solstices a dagger can be seen either through the heart of the spiral or to either side of it. It is proposed that this petroglyph was created to mark these events. If no ethnographic nor historical data are found which can support this assertion then acceptance of the idea relies upon the reader's own belief as to whether or not there are enough petroglyph sites in North America that such a correlation could occur by chance. It is helpful when petroglyphs are associated with existing peoples. This allows ethnoastronomers to question informants as to the meaning of such symbols. Petroglyphs on Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, southern Utah, USA Petroglyphs are images incised in rock, usually by prehistoric, especially Neolithic, peoples. ... Fajada Butte is a butte in Chaco Culture National Historical Park, a park in New Mexico. ...

Alignment analysis

The Sun rising behind the Heel Stone at Stonehenge

The most public image of archaeoastronomy is the practice of alignment analysis. This is the study of the orientation of structures and calculating the direction in which they face. In the case of Stonehenge it is well known to face the rising midsummer sun. In the case of the pyramids of Egypt they face north, probably to face the circumpolar stars.^[9] Download high resolution version (800x611, 45 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (800x611, 45 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

The use of alignment analysis may vary depending upon the researcher. As a coarse stereotype archaeoastronomers from an historical background tend to have an idea which is then tested by examining structures for alignments. Astronomically-minded archaeoastronomers may analyze large numbers of sites and attempt to find statistical patterns. This approach was particularly employed in early papers by pioneers in the field such as Alexander Thom who conducted extensive fieldwork at megalithic sites and concluded many sites were situated to observe the moon. In this instance the aim was to prove that there is an astronomical problem which requires an historical explanation. This latter approach continues to an extent in some modern research but it has comparatively little direct impact on mainstream archaeology. Professor Alexander Thom (1894 - 1985) was a Scottish engineer most famous for his theory of the Megalithic yard. ...

One reason the statistically-led approach has proven unpopular with archaeologists and anthropologists was stated by the anthropologist Keith Kintigh:

In light of the fact that archaeoastronomers bring considerable energy and expertise to their efforts, what accounts for archaeologists' indifference? I think the principal reason is that archaeologists see archaeoastronomers as answering questions that, from a social scientific standpoint, no one is asking. To put it bluntly, in many cases it doesn't matter much to the progress of anthropology whether a particular archaeoastronomical claim is right or wrong because the information doesn't inform the current interpretive questions."[10] Image File history File links Cquote1. ...

Recent statistically led research has tended to be more discriminating, choosing archaeologically associated sites and where possible referring back to historical or ethnographic records to place the findings in a social context. Image File history File links Cquote2. ...

An alignment calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces. The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree.^[11] Azimuth is the horizontal component of a direction (compass direction), measured around the horizon toward the East, i. ... Diagram of an Optical Theodolite. ... Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. ... The magnetic declination (or magnetic variation) at any point on the earth is a property of the geomagnetic field defined as the angle that must be added or subtracted in converting between two kinds of directional information: the direction of the needle on a magnetic compass located there, and the...

A thedolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. If one is measuring buildings which were unlikely to be orientated by their builders to within fractions of a degree then a thedolite can be more trouble than it is worth. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer. Calibration refers to the process of setting the magnitude of the output (or response) of a measuring instrument to the magnitude of the input property or attribute within specified accuracy and precision. ... A Clinometer is a relatively simple instrument used for the measurement of a vertical angle from the horizontal. ...

Recreating the ancient sky

Once the researcher has data to test, it is often necessary to attempt to recreate ancient sky conditions to place the data in its historical environment.

Declination

Main article: Declination

A time lapse photo showing the stars rotating around the celestial pole.

To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed. The stars provide such a system. If you were to go outside on a clear night you would observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole. This point is +90º if you are watching the North Celestial Pole or -90º if you are observing the Southern Celestial Pole. The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as declination. The point on the horizon due East, if the horizon is flat is the celestial equation which has a declination of 0º. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say if a specific body can be seen in that direction. In astronomy, declination (dec) is one of the two coordinates of the equatorial coordinate system, the other being either right ascension or hour angle. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3008x2080, 966 KB) Circumpolar stars, self-made, License: File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Archaeoastronomy Circumpolar star ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3008x2080, 966 KB) Circumpolar stars, self-made, License: File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Archaeoastronomy Circumpolar star ...

Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes.

Image File history File links Decdiag600. ... Image File history File links Decdiag600. ...

Solar positioning

While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the mid-point. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5º then he need not wait until June 21 to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. For more information see History of solar observation. For other uses, see Pendulum (disambiguation). ... Early understanding of the Sun The Trundholm sun chariot pulled by a horse is a sculpture believed to be illustrating an important part of Nordic Bronze Age mythology. ...

Lunar positioning

The Moon's appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits - known as lunastices rather than solstices. However its travel between lunastices is considerably faster. It takes a sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunastices marking the limits of the Moon's movement move on an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the phase of the Moon. The cycle from one New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due the extremely variable nature of the moon. See Moon for more details. In Egyptian mythology, Month is an alternate spelling for Menthu. ... At the major lunar standstill, which takes place every 18. ... In astronomy, a phase of the Moon is any of the aspects or appearances presented by the Moon as seen from Earth, determined by the portion of the Moon that is visibly illuminated by the Sun. ... The lunar phase depends on the Moons position in orbit around Earth. ... In Egyptian mythology, Month is an alternate spelling for Menthu. ... Bulk composition of the moons mantle and crust estimated, weight percent Oxygen 42. ...

Stellar positioning

Main article: Precession of the equinoxes

Precessional movement.

Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25700 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now. In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substanstial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on December 25 in Roman times would have been born under the astrological sign of Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date is now a Sagittarian^[12] due to the precession of the equinoxes. Precession of the equinoxes refers to the precession of the Earths axis of rotation. ... Precession of rotational axis relative to the direction to the Sun at perihelion and aphelion. ... Precession of rotational axis relative to the direction to the Sun at perihelion and aphelion. ... This article is about the toy. ... Polaris (α UMi / α Ursae Minoris / Alpha Ursae Minoris) is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor. ... The ancient pyramids of Egypt The pyramids of Egypt, among the largest constructions ever built by man, [1], constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. ... Thuban (α Dra / α Draconis / Alpha Draconis) is a star (or star system) in the constellation of Draco. ... Draco (Latin for Dragon) is a far northern constellation that is circumpolar for many northern hemisphere observers. ... Capricornus ( or , Unicode: ♑), a name meaning Horned Goat or That which has horns like a goats in Latin, is one of the constellations of the zodiac. ... For the astrological sign, see Sagittarius. ...

Transient phenomena

Halley's Comet depicted on the Bayeux tapestry

Additionally there are often transient phenomena, events which do not happen on an annual cycle. Most predictable are events like eclipses. In the case of solar eclipses these can be used to date events in the past. A solar eclipse mentioned by Herodotus enables us to date a battle between the Medes and the Lydians, which following the eclipse failed to happen, to May 28, 585 BC^[13]. Other easily calculated events are supernovae whose remains are visible to astronomers and therefore their positions and magnitude can be accurately calculated. Image File history File links Tapestry_of_bayeux10. ... Image File history File links Tapestry_of_bayeux10. ... The Bayeux Tapestry (French: Tapisserie de Bayeux) is a 50 cm by 70 m (20 in by 230 ft) long embroidered cloth which depicts scenes commemorating the Battle of Hastings in 1066, with annotations in Latin. ... The French 1999 eclipse An eclipse (Greek verb: ekleipô, to vanish, though it may derive from the prefix ex-, away from, and Greek leipein, to miss[verification needed]) is an astronomical event that occurs when one celestial object moves into the shadow of another. ... Photo taken during the 1999 eclipse. ... Bust of Herodotus at Naples Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: , Herodotos) was a historian who lived in the 5th century BC (484 BC-ca. ... The Medes(ancient Kurdistan) were an Iranian people, who lived in the north, western, and northwestern portions of present-day Iran, and roughly the areas of present day Tehran, Hamedan, Azarbaijan, north of Esfahan, Zanjan, and Kurdistan. ... Lydia (Greek ) is a historic region of western Anatolia, congruent with Turkeys modern provinces of Ä°zmir and Manisa. ... Remnant of Keplers Supernova, SN 1604. ...

Some comets are predictable, most famously Halley's Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the solar system once and so are inherently unpredictable. Comet Hale-Bopp For other uses, see Comet (disambiguation). ... Comet Halley as taken with the Halley Multicolor Camera on the ESA Giotto mission. ... The orbital period is the time it takes a planet (or another object) to make one full orbit. ...

Meteor showers should be predictable, but the meteors are cometary debris and so require calculations of orbits which are currently impossible to complete. Other events noted by ancients include aurorae, Sun dogs and rainbows all of which are as impossible to predict as the ancient weather, but nevertheless may have been considered important phenomena. Leonid Meteor Shower From earliest times, humankind has noticed flurries of meteors that seemed to emanate from particular points in the sky at particular times of the year. ... Photo of a burst of meteors with extended exposure time A meteor is the visible path of a meteoroid that enters the Earths (or another bodys) atmosphere, commonly called a shooting star or falling star. ... Look up Aurora, aurora in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... An unusually pronounced sundog produced by sunlight passing through thin cirrus clouds. ... Full featured rainbow in Wrangell-St. ...

Major topics of archaeoastronomical research

The use of calendars

Aztec Stone of the Sun replica in El Paso, Texas, cast from the original to be found in the National Museum of Anthropology and History. A religious artefact showing how the Mexica people thought about time.

A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod’s Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to contradict this. Instead astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that haphazard astronomy continued until recent times in some parts of the world.^[14] All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2304x1728, 1350 KB) Summary Replica of the Aztec stone of the sun, from the original found in the city formerly known as Tenochtitlán. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2304x1728, 1350 KB) Summary Replica of the Aztec stone of the sun, from the original found in the city formerly known as Tenochtitlán. ... The Aztecs were a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people of central Mexico in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. ... Aztec Sun Stone. ... Nickname: Star of the Southwest and Land of the Sun Location in the state of Texas Coordinates: County El Paso County Mayor John Cook Area    - City 250. ... Front entrance to the museum. ... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... A calendar is a system for naming periods of time, typically days. ... Hesiod (Hesiodos, ), the early Greek poet and rhapsode, presumably lived around 700 BCE. Historians have debated the priority of Hesiod or of Homer, and some authors have even brought them together in an imagined poetic contest. ... Ernst Haeckel coined the term oekologie in 1866. ... // Long-distance land bird migration Many species of land migratory birds migrate very long distances, the most common pattern being for birds to breed in the temperate or arctic northern hemisphere and winter in warmer regions, often in the tropics or the temperate zones of the southern hemisphere. ... The Mursi (Murzu) are an Sub-Saharan African nomadic cattle herder tribe located in southwestern Ethiopia, Omo Valley, close to the Sudan border. ...

An example of a non-agricultural calendar is the Mayan Tzolkin which is a cycle of 260 days. This count is based on an earlier calendar and is found throughout Mesoamerica. This formed part of a more comprehensive Maya Calendar which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles.^[15]

Other peculiar calendars include ancient Greek calendars. These were nominally lunar, starting with the New Moon. In reality the calendar could paused or days skipped with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and ton theoi, by the moon.^[16] The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping.^[17] The Attic calendar is the name of the calendar used in Ancient Athens. ... It has been suggested that lunar year be merged into this article or section. ... The lunar phase depends on the Moons position in orbit around Earth. ... Bulk composition of the moons mantle and crust estimated, weight percent Oxygen 42. ... Panhellenic Games is the collective term for four separate sports festivals held in ancient Greece. ...

Myth and cosmology

The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690.

Another motive for studying the sky is to understand and explain the universe. In pre-scientific times myth was a tool for achieving this and the explanations, while not scientific, are cosmologies. Drawing by Johann Hevelius of constellation Argo, scanned from a facsimile print. ... Drawing by Johann Hevelius of constellation Argo, scanned from a facsimile print. ... The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690 Argo Navis (or simply Argo) was a large southern constellation representing the Argo, the ship used by Jason and the Argonauts in Greek mythology. ... A typical daytime sky. ... The deepest visible-light image of the cosmos, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. ... // The word mythology (Greek: μυθολογία, from μυθος mythos, a story or legend, and λογος logos, an account or speech) literally means the (oral) retelling of myths – stories that a particular culture believes to be true and that use supernatural events or characters to explain the nature of the universe and humanity. ... Science in the broadest sense refers to any knowledge or system of knowledge, attained by verifiable means. ... // Cosmology, from the Greek: κοσμολογία (cosmologia, κόσμος (cosmos) order + λογια (logia) discourse) is the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanitys place in it. ...

The Incas arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre.^[18] These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four suyus, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the Andes. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky.^[19] In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a perpendicular fashion. For other meanings of Inca, see Inca (disambiguation). ... Cusco (also Cuzco, Qosqo, or Qusqu) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley (Sacred Valley) of the Andes mountain range. ... The Andes form the longest mountain chain in the world. ... The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias), sometimes referred to simply as the Galaxy), is a barred spiral galaxy which forms part of the Local Group. ... Perpendicular is a geometric term that may be used as a noun or adjective. ...

The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The Forbidden City in Beijing is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions the Chinese saw five, North, South, East, West and Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing.^[20] One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as Feng Shui. , Overview of the Forbidden City The Forbidden City or Forbidden Palace (Chinese: ; pinyin: Zǐjìn Chéng; literally Purple Forbidden City), located at the exact center of the ancient city of Beijing, was the imperial palace during the mid-Ming and the Qing Dynasties. ... Beijing (Chinese: ; pinyin: BÄ›ijÄ«ng; ; IPA: ), a city in northern China (formerly spelled in English as Peking or Peiking), is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). ... Compass rose with north highlighted and at top North is one of the four cardinal directions, specifically the direction that, in Western culture, is treated as the primary direction: north is used (explicitly or implicitly) to define all other directions; the (visual) top edges of maps usually correspond to the... A compass rose with South highlighted South is most commonly a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography. ... The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST, internally called HT-7U) is a project being undertaken to construct an experimental superconducting tokamak magnetic fusion energy reactor in Hefei, the capital city of Anhui Province, in eastern China. ... A compass rose with west highlighted This article refers to the cardinal direction; for other uses see West (disambiguation). ... In geometry, the centre (or center) of an object is a point in some sense in the middle of the object. ... In astronomy, circumpolar constellations are those that, from the viewers latitude, never set. ... Fēng Shuǐ (風水 – literally, wind and water pronounced fung shuway), which may be more than 3000 years old, is the ancient practice of placement to achieve harmony with the environment. ...

There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the constellations. The Barasana of the Amazon plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees.^[21] This provides planning for food procurement at a time when hunger could otherwise be a problem. Orion is a remarkable constellation, visible from most places on the globe at one time or another during the year. ... A river in the Amazon rainforest The Amazon Rainforest (Portuguese Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia) is a moist broadleaf forest in the Amazon Basin of South America. ...

A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of continuing and occasionally fractious debate.

Displays of power

The Intihuatana ("tie the sun") at Machu Picchu is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site's possible astrological role

The most common popular image of archaeoastronomy is the expression of hidden knowledge and power. By using stellar symbolism one can make claims of heavenly power. marius ivanov altFactor File links The following pages link to this file: Machu Picchu ... marius ivanov altFactor File links The following pages link to this file: Machu Picchu ... View of Machu Picchu Machu Picchu (Quechua: Old Peak; sometimes called the Lost City of the Incas) is a well-preserved pre-Columbian Inca ruin located on a high mountain ridge. ... An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, star + λόγος, logos, word) is...

By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of Achilles described by Homer is also a catalogue of constellations.^[22] In North America shields depicted in Comanche petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism.^[23] The Wrath of Achilles, by François-Léon Benouville (1821-1859) (Musée Fabre) In Greek mythology, Achilles, also Akhilleus or Achilleus (Ancient Greek ) was a hero of the Trojan War, the central character and greatest warrior of Homers Iliad, which takes for its theme, not the War... The Homère Caetani bust at the Louvre, a 2nd century Roman copy of a 2nd century BC Greek original. ... Comanche territory. ... Petroglyphs on a Bishop Tuff tableland Petroglyph on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument Petroglyphs from Scandinavia (Häljesta, Västmanland in Sweden). ...

Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. In Egypt the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun.^[24] The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. Diagram of the Earths seasons Solstice is an astronomical term regarding the position of the Sun in relation to the earths equator. ... Amun (also spelt Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imenand, and spelt in Greek as Ammon, and Hammon) was the name of a deity, in Egyptian mythology, who gradually rose to become one of the most important, before disappearing back into the shadows. ... Map of Karnak, showing major temple complexes Interior of Temple Al-Karnak (Arabic الكرنك) is a small village in Egypt, located on the banks of the River Nile some 2. ... The Obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle between the plane of the Earths equator and the ecliptic plane in which the Earth rotates around the Sun. ...

In a later period the Serapeum in Alexandria was also said to have contained a solar alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of Serapis thus symbolising the Sun saluting the god.^[25] The Serapeum of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt was a temple built by Ptolemy III (reigned 246–222 BC) and dedicated to Serapis, the syncretic Hellenistic-Egyptian god who was made the protector of Alexandria. ... Alexandria Modern Alexandria, from Qaitbays Citadel Antiquity and modernity stand side-by-side in Egypts chief Mediterranean seaport. ... The Sun is the name given to the star of our solar system. ... Serapis can refer to: A series of British ships named HMS Serapis. ... The Sun is the name given to the star of our solar system. ...

The use of astronomy at Stonehenge continues to be a matter of vigorous discussion. Stonehenge in 2004 For other meanings of Stonehenge, see: Stonehenge (disambiguation) Stonehenge is a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument located near Amesbury in the English county of Wiltshire, about 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. ...

Archaeoastronomical organisations and publications

There are currently two academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy. ISAAC—the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture—was founded in 1995 and now sponsors the Oxford conferences and Archaeoastronomy – the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC—the Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture—is slightly older; it was created in 1992. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis. 1995 (MCMXCV) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1992 (MCMXCII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday. ... World map showing Europe Political map Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth; the term continent here referring to a cultural and political distinction, rather than a physiographic one, thus leading to various perspectives about Europes precise borders. ...

Additionally the Journal for the History of Astronomy publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes it also published an annual supplement Archaeoastronomy.

References

Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ... 1927 (MCMXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... Richard John Copland Atkinson (1920 – 1994) was a British prehistorian and archaeologist. ... Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ... 1966 (MCMLXVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1966 calendar). ... For the album by Ash, see 1977 (album). ... 1985 (MCMLXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For album titles with the same name, see 2002 (album). ... Nature is one of the oldest and most reputable general-purpose scientific journals, first published on November 4, 1869. ... 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday. ... 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year 2000. ... Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1995 (MCMXCV) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr Ed Krupp is an American astronomer working as the director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ... 1994 (MCMXCIV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by United Nations. ... Dr Ed Krupp is an American astronomer working as the director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr Ed Krupp is an American astronomer working as the director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Tyrannius Rufinus or Rufinus of Aquileia (between 340 and 345–410 CE) was a monk, historian, and theologian. ...

See also

• List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country Sites where claims for the use of astronomy have been made.
• List of artefacts of archaeoastronomical significance Artefacts which have been interpreted as being used for some astronomical purpose.
• European Megalithic Culture

This is a list of sites where claims for the use of astronomy have been made, sorted by country. ... Development of the European Megalithic Culture The European Megalithic Culture was a prehistoric (and preliterate) civilisation based primarily in Western Europe, that has left a legacy of large stone monuments, or megaliths, scattered widely across the continent. ...

External links

• Archaeoastronomy A Thinkquest website surveying archaeoastronomical sites across the world.
• Clives Ruggles webpage: bibliography and synopsis of his course at Leicester University
• ISAAC, The International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture.
• SEAC La Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture. Site in English.
• Space Imaging's Ancient Observatories gallery - Satellite pictures of ancient observatories.
• Traditions of the Sun - NASA and others exploring the world's ancient observatories.
• Tulum - Mayan Mystery - Amateur archaeoastronomy from the archaeological site at Tulum.

The University of Leicester is based in Leicester, England, with about 8,000 full-time students and over 10,000 distance-learning students, one of the larget distance learning populations of any UK university. ...

Journals

• Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy News
• Archaeoastronomy: Supplement to the Journal for the History of Astronomy
• Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture
• Culture and Cosmos
• Journal for the History of Astronomy