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Encyclopedia > Archaeoastronomy
The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice.
The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice.
The rising sun illuminates the inner chamber of Newgrange, Ireland only at the winter solstice.
The rising sun illuminates the inner chamber of Newgrange, Ireland only at the winter solstice.

Archaeoastronomy (also spelled Archeoastronomy) is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilising archaeological and anthropological evidence. The anthropological study of astronomical practices in contemporary societies is often called ethnoastronomy, although there is no consensus as to whether ethnoastronomy is a separate discipline or is a part of archaeoastronomy. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical traditions. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1224x854, 142 KB) The Sun rising over Stonehenge on the morning of the Summer Solstice (21st June 2005). ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1224x854, 142 KB) The Sun rising over Stonehenge on the morning of the Summer Solstice (21st June 2005). ... For other meanings of Stonehenge, see: Stonehenge (disambiguation) Stonehenge is a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument located near Amesbury in the English county of Wiltshire, about 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. ... A solstice is either of the two events of the year when the sun is at its greatest distance from the equatorial plane. ... Newgrange, Ireland. ... Newgrange, Ireland. ... Newgrange, located at , , is one of the passage tombs of the Brú na Bóinne complex in County Meath, is the most famous of all Irish prehistoric sites. ... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy is the science of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as auroras and cosmic background radiation). ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Anthropology is the study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity through the examination of historical and present geographical distribution, cultural history, acculturation, and cultural relationships. ... Historical astronomy is the science of analysing historical astronomical data. ... Astronomy is probably the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with astronomy, and not completely different from it until about 1750‑1800 in the Western...


It is most frequently mentioned with astronomical claims regarding Stonehenge or the pyramids of Egypt. The prehistoric monument of Stonehenge has long been studied for its possible connections with ancient astronomy. ... The Great Sphinx of Giza with Khafres pyramid in the background. ...

Contents

History of archaeoastronomy

Archaeoastronomy is almost as old as archaeology itself. Heinrich Nissen was arguably the first archaeoastronomer, publishing Das Templum: Antiquarische Untersuchungen in 1869. Other researchers followed. The astronomer Norman Lockyer was active at the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth. His studies included an examinations of Egyptian temples in The Dawn of Astronomy in 1894 and of Stonehenge published as Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered in 1906. The archaeologist Francis Penrose published extensively in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on the astronomical alignment of Greek temples in the Mediterranean in the same period. Archaeoastronomy was, for a while, a respectable subject. The first issue of the archaeological journal Antiquity, published in 1927, includes an article on archaeoastronomical research.[1] Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer or Norman Lockyer (May 17, 1836 – August 16, 1920) was an English scientist and astronomer. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s The 20th century lasted from 1901 to 2000 in the Gregorian calendar (often from (1900 to 1999 in common usage). ... Francis Cranmer Penrose FRS (29 October 1817 - 15 February 1903) was an British architect, archaeologist and astronomer. ... Cover of Cover the first volume of , published in 1665 The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, or Phil. ... The Greeks began to build monumental temples in the first half of the 8th century BC. The temples of Hera at Samos and of Poseidon at Isthmia were among the first erected. ... Composite satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea. ... Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ...

Early archaeoastronomy began by surveying alignments of Megalithic stones in the British Isles and sites like Auglish in County Londonderry in an attempt to find statistical patterns
Early archaeoastronomy began by surveying alignments of Megalithic stones in the British Isles and sites like Auglish in County Londonderry in an attempt to find statistical patterns

In the British Isles interest in archaeoastronomy waned until the 1960s when the astronomer Gerald Hawkins proposed that Stonehenge was a Neolithic computer. Around the same time the engineer Alexander Thom published his survey results of megalithic sites also proposed widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed.[2] However, Thom’s analysis continued to pose a problem. A re-evaluation of Thom’s fieldwork by Clive Ruggles attempted to show that his claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless there was evidence of widespread interest in astronomy associated with megalithic sites. The response from most archaeologists was tepid. Only one, Euan MacKie, recognised that Thom’s theories needed to be tested and he excavated at the Kintraw standing stone site in Argyllshire in 1970 and 1971 to check whether the latter’s prediction of an observation platform on the hill slope above the stone was correct. There was an artificial platform there and this apparent verification of Thom’s long alignment hypothesis (Kintraw was diagnosed as an accurate winter solstice site) led him to check Thom’s geometrical theories at the Cultoon stone circle in Islay, also with a positive result. MacKie therefore broadly accepted Thom’s conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain.[3] Until the early 1980s — with the exception just mentioned — most archaeoastronomical research in the United Kingdom was concerned with establishing the existence of astronomical alignments in prehistoric sites by statistical means rather than the social practice of astronomy in ancient times. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x960, 400 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Archaeoastronomy ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x960, 400 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Archaeoastronomy ... Statistics Province: Ulster County Town: Derry Area: 2,074 km² Population (est. ... Location of the British Isles The British Isles are a group of islands off the north west coast of continental Europe comprising Great Britain, Ireland and a number of smaller islands. ... Gerald Stanley Hawkins (1928–2003) was an astronomer and author most famous for his work in the field of archaeoastronomy. ... An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. ... Professor Alexander Thom (1894 - 1985) was a Scottish engineer most famous for his theory of the Megalithic yard. ... Megalithic tomb, Mane Braz, Brittany Bronze age wedge tomb in the Burren area of Ireland For the record label, see Megalith Records. ... For Wikipedia statistics, see m:Statistics Statistics is the science and practice of developing human knowledge through the use of empirical data expressed in quantitative form. ...

It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments
It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments

In the New World, anthropologists began to more fully consider the role of astronomy in Amerindian societies. This approach had access to sources that the prehistory of Europe lacks such as ethnographies[4] and the historical records of the early colonisers. This allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy that were comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe. Image File history File linksMetadata Uxmal01-panorama. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Uxmal01-panorama. ... 74. ... Panorama of Uxmal Uxmal (, ) is a large Pre-Columbian ruined city of the Maya civilization in the state of Yucatán, Mexico. ... Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, c. ... Native Americans (also Indians, Aboriginal Peoples, American Indians, First Nations, Alaskan Natives, or Indigenous Peoples of America) are the indigenous inhabitants of The Americas prior to the European colonization, and their modern descendants. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Prehistoric man. ... Ethnography (from the Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing) refers to the genre of writing that presents varying degrees of qualitative and quantitative descriptions of human social phenomena, based on fieldwork. ... History studies the past in human terms. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...


This came to a head at a meeting sponsored by the IAU in Oxford in 1981.[5] The methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes.[6] Nevertheless the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences have continued every four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research,[7] which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today. Rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky. Logo of the IAU The International Astronomical Union (French: Union astronomique internationale) unites national astronomical societies from around the world. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ...


Methodology

Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites there is no one way practise archaeoastronomy. Despite this it is accepted that Archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because Archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in Archaeology like analogy and homology and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in Astronomy. Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), and a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. ... Homology is an important concept in several disciplines: Homology (anthropology) in archaeology and anthropology. ... In the fields of science, engineering, industry and statistics, accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual (true) value. ...


Artifactual analysis

The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)
The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)

In the case of artifacts such as the Sky Disc of Nebra, alleged to be a Bronze Age artifact depicting the cosmos, the analysis would be similar to typical post-excavation analysis as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artifact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1036x924, 206 KB) Summary Principal fragment of the Antikythera mechanism. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1036x924, 206 KB) Summary Principal fragment of the Antikythera mechanism. ... The Nebra sky disk The Nebra sky disk is a bronze disk of around 30cm diameter, patinated blue-green and inlaid with gold symbols. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ...


Another well-known artifact with an astronomical use is the Antikythera mechanism. In this case analysis of the artifact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read. The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment) The Antikythera mechanism (Greek: O μηχανισμός των Αντικυθήρων transliterated as O mēchanismós tōn Antikythērōn) is an ancient mechanical analog computer (as opposed to most computers today which are digital computers) designed to calculate astronomical positions. ...


Symbolic analysis

Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the petroglyph on various days
Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the petroglyph on various days

In some cases the use of an artefact may be known, but its meaning may not be fully understood. In such cases an examination of the symbolism on the artefact may be necessary. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (286x626, 30 KB) Summary Fajada Butte diagram. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (286x626, 30 KB) Summary Fajada Butte diagram. ...


A mundane example is the presence of astrological symbols found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but Carol van Driel-Murray has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings.[8] This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time. ...


More problematic are some petroglyphs. Symbols on rock are one such class of symbol which are occasionally argued to posses astronomical meanings. An example is the Sun Dagger of Fajada Butte which is a glint of sunlight passing over a spiral petroglyph. The location of the dagger on the petroglyph varies throughout the year. At the solstices a dagger can be seen either through the heart of the spiral or to either side of it. It is proposed that this petroglyph was created to mark these events. If no ethnographic nor historical data are found which can support this assertion then acceptance of the idea relies upon the reader’s own belief as to whether or not there are enough petroglyph sites in North America that such a correlation could occur by chance. It is helpful when petroglyphs are associated with existing peoples. This allows ethnoastronomers to question informants as to the meaning of such symbols. Petroglyphs on Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, southern Utah, USA Petroglyphs are images created by removing part of a rock surfaces by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. ... Fajada Butte is a butte in Chaco Culture National Historical Park, a park in New Mexico. ...


Alignment analysis

The Sun rising behind the Heel Stone at Stonehenge
The Sun rising behind the Heel Stone at Stonehenge

The most public image of archaeoastronomy is the practice of alignment analysis. This is the study of the orientation of structures and calculating the direction in which they face. In the case of Stonehenge it is well known to face the rising midsummer sun. In the case of the pyramids of Egypt they face north, probably to face the circumpolar stars.[9] Download high resolution version (800x611, 45 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (800x611, 45 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...


The use of alignment analysis may vary depending upon the researcher. As a coarse stereotype archaeoastronomers from an historical background tend to have an idea which is then tested by examining structures for alignments. Astronomically-minded archaeoastronomers may analyze large numbers of sites and attempt to find statistical patterns. This approach was particularly employed in early papers by pioneers in the field such as Alexander Thom who conducted extensive fieldwork at megalithic sites and concluded many sites were situated to observe the moon. In this instance the aim was to prove that there is an astronomical problem which requires an historical explanation. This latter approach continues to an extent in some modern research but it has comparatively little direct impact on mainstream archaeology. Professor Alexander Thom (1894 - 1985) was a Scottish engineer most famous for his theory of the Megalithic yard. ...


One reason the statistically-led approach has proven unpopular with archaeologists and anthropologists was stated by the anthropologist Keith Kintigh:

“ In light of the fact that archaeoastronomers bring considerable energy and expertise to their efforts, what accounts for archaeologists’ indifference?

I think the principal reason is that archaeologists see archaeoastronomers as answering questions that, from a social scientific standpoint, no one is asking. To put it bluntly, in many cases it doesn’t matter much to the progress of anthropology whether a particular archaeoastronomical claim is right or wrong because the information doesn’t inform the current interpretive questions.[10]

 ”

Recent statistically led research has tended to be more discriminating, choosing archaeologically associated sites and where possible referring back to historical or ethnographic records to place the findings in a social context.


An alignment calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces. The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth’s magnetic field from true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree.[11] Azimuth is the horizontal component of a direction (compass direction), measured around the horizon, usually from the north toward the east — i. ... An optical theodolite, manufactured in the Soviet Union in 1958 and used for topographic surveying. ... For the tool used to draw circles, see Compass (drafting). ... The magnetic declination (or magnetic variation) at any point on the earth is a property of the geomagnetic field defined as the angle that must be added or subtracted in converting between two kinds of directional information: the direction of the needle on a magnetic compass located there, and the...


A thedolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth’s rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. If one is measuring buildings which were unlikely to be orientated by their builders to within fractions of a degree then a thedolite can be more trouble than it is worth. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer. Calibration refers to the process of setting the magnitude of the output (or response) of a measuring instrument to the magnitude of the input property or attribute within specified accuracy and precision. ... A Clinometer is a relatively simple instrument used for the measurement of a vertical angle from the horizontal. ...


Recreating the ancient sky

Once the researcher has data to test, it is often necessary to attempt to recreate ancient sky conditions to place the data in its historical environment.


Declination

Main article: Declination
A time lapse photo showing the stars rotating around the celestial pole.
A time lapse photo showing the stars rotating around the celestial pole.

To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed. The stars provide such a system. If you were to go outside on a clear night you would observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole. This point is +90° if you are watching the North Celestial Pole or −90° if you are observing the Southern Celestial Pole. The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as declination. The point on the horizon due East, if the horizon is flat is the celestial equation which has a declination of 0°. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say if a specific body can be seen in that direction. In astronomy, declination (abbrev. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3008x2080, 966 KB) Circumpolar stars, self-made, License: File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Archaeoastronomy Circumpolar star ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3008x2080, 966 KB) Circumpolar stars, self-made, License: File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Archaeoastronomy Circumpolar star ...

Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes.
Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes.

Image File history File links Decdiag600. ... Image File history File links Decdiag600. ...

Solar positioning

While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the mid-point. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5° then he need not wait until June 21 to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. For more information see History of solar observation. Simple gravity pendulum assumes no air resistance and no friction of/at the nail/screw. ... June 21 is the 172nd day of the year (173rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 193 days remaining. ... Early understanding of the Sun The Trundholm sun chariot pulled by a horse is a sculpture believed to be illustrating an important part of Nordic Bronze Age mythology. ...


Lunar positioning

The Moon’s appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits — known as lunastices rather than solstices. However, its travel between lunastices is considerably faster. It takes a sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunastices marking the limits of the Moon’s movement move on an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the phase of the Moon. The cycle from one New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due the extremely variable nature of the moon. See Moon for more details. In Egyptian mythology, Month is an alternate spelling for Menthu. ... At a major lunar standstill, which takes place every 18. ... Lunar phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer, usually on Earth. ... The lunar phase depends on the Moons position in orbit around Earth. ... In Egyptian mythology, Month is an alternate spelling for Menthu. ... Apparent magnitude: up to -12. ...


Stellar positioning

Main article: Precession of the equinoxes
Precessional movement.
Precessional movement.

Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth’s rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth’s axis takes around 25700 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now. In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substanstial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on December 25 in Roman times would have been born under the astrological sign of Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date is now a Sagittarian[12] due to the precession of the equinoxes. Precession of the equinoxes refers to the precession of the Earths axis of rotation. ... Precession of rotational axis relative to the direction to the Sun at perihelion and aphelion. ... Precession of rotational axis relative to the direction to the Sun at perihelion and aphelion. ... This article is about the toy. ... Polaris (α UMi / α Ursae Minoris / Alpha Ursae Minoris), more commonly known as The North Star or simply North Star, is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor. ... The Great Sphinx of Giza with Khafres pyramid in the background. ... Thuban (α Dra / α Draconis / Alpha Draconis) is a star (or star system) in the constellation of Draco. ... Draco (IPA: , Latin: ) is a far northern constellation that is circumpolar for many northern hemisphere observers. ... Capricorn is an astrological sign, which is associated with the constellation Capricornus. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Transient phenomena

Halley’s Comet depicted on the Bayeux tapestry
Halley’s Comet depicted on the Bayeux tapestry

Additionally there are often transient phenomena, events which do not happen on an annual cycle. Most predictable are events like eclipses. In the case of solar eclipses these can be used to date events in the past. A solar eclipse mentioned by Herodotus enables us to date a battle between the Medes and the Lydians, which following the eclipse failed to happen, to May 28, 585 BC.[13] Other easily calculated events are supernovae whose remains are visible to astronomers and therefore their positions and magnitude can be accurately calculated. Image File history File links Tapestry_of_bayeux10. ... Image File history File links Tapestry_of_bayeux10. ... The Bayeux Tapestry (French: Tapisserie de Bayeux) is a 50 cm by 70 m (20 in by 230 ft) long embroidered cloth which depicts scenes commemorating the Battle of Hastings in 1066, with annotations in Latin. ... Total eclipse redirects here. ... Photo taken during the 1999 eclipse. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Lydia (Greek ) is a historic region of western Anatolia, congruent with Turkeys modern provinces of Ä°zmir and Manisa. ... Remnant of Keplers Supernova, SN 1604. ...


Some comets are predictable, most famously Halley’s Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the solar system once and so are inherently unpredictable. Comet Hale-Bopp Comet McNaught as seen from Swifts Creek, Victoria, Australia on 23 January 2007 A comet is a small body in the solar system that orbits the Sun and (at least occasionally) exhibits a coma (or atmosphere) and/or a tail â€” both primarily from the effects of... Halleys Comet, officially designated 1P/Halley and also referred to as Comet Halley after Edmond Halley, is a comet that can be seen every 75-76 years. ... The orbital period is the time it takes a planet (or another object) to make one full orbit. ...


Meteor showers should be predictable, but the meteors are cometary debris and so require calculations of orbits which are currently impossible to complete. Other events noted by ancients include aurorae, sun dogs and rainbows all of which are as impossible to predict as the ancient weather, but nevertheless may have been considered important phenomena. Leonid Meteor Shower A meteor shower, also known as a meteor storm, is a celestial event where a large number of meteors are seen within a very short period. ... Photo of a burst of meteors with extended exposure time A meteor is the visible path of a meteoroid that enters the Earths (or another bodys) atmosphere, commonly called a shooting star or falling star. ... The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, shines above Bear Lake Wikimedia Commons picture of the year, 2006 Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska Aurora borealis For other uses, see Aurora (disambiguation). ... An unusually pronounced sundog produced by sunlight passing through thin cirrus clouds. ... Full featured rainbow in Wrangell-St. ...


Major topics of archaeoastronomical research

The use of calendars

Aztec Stone of the Sun replica in El Paso, Texas, cast from the original to be found in Mexico's National Museum of Anthropology. A religious artefact showing how the Mexica people thought about time.
Aztec Stone of the Sun replica in El Paso, Texas, cast from the original to be found in Mexico's National Museum of Anthropology. A religious artefact showing how the Mexica people thought about time.

A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod’s Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to contradict this. Instead astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that haphazard astronomy continued until recent times in some parts of the world.[14] All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2304x1728, 1350 KB) Summary Replica of the Aztec stone of the sun, from the original found in the city formerly known as Tenochtitlán. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2304x1728, 1350 KB) Summary Replica of the Aztec stone of the sun, from the original found in the city formerly known as Tenochtitlán. ... The Aztecs is a collective term used for all of the Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican peoples under the control of the Mexica, founders of Tenochtitlan, and their two principal allies, who built an extensive empire in the late Postclassic period in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries in Central Mexico. ... Original stone on display in the Mexican National Museum of Anthropology and History. ... Nickname: Star of the Southwest, The Sun City, and Land of the Sun Location in the state of Texas Coordinates: County El Paso County Government  - Mayor John Cook Area  - City  250. ... this page sucks because there is no page. ... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72. ... Roman bronze bust, the so-called Pseudo-Seneca, now identified by some as possibly Hesiod Hesiod (Hesiodos, ) was an early Greek poet and rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BC. Hesiod and Homer, with whom Hesiod is often paired, have been considered the earliest Greek poets whose work has survived... Ernst Haeckel coined the term oekologie in 1866. ... Flock of Barnacle Geese during autumn migration Many species of birds undertake seasonal journeys of various lengths, a phenomenon known as Bird migration. ... The Mursi (Murzu) are an Sub-Saharan African nomadic cattle herder tribe located in southwestern Ethiopia, Omo Valley, close to the Sudan border. ...


An example of a non-agricultural calendar is the Mayan Tzolkin which is a cycle of 260 days. This count is based on an earlier calendar and is found throughout Mesoamerica. This formed part of a more comprehensive Maya Calendar which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles.[15]


Other peculiar calendars include ancient Greek calendars. These were nominally lunar, starting with the New Moon. In reality the calendar could paused or days skipped with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and ton theoi, by the moon.[16] The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping.[17] The Attic calendar is the name of the calendar used in Ancient Athens. ... It has been suggested that lunar year be merged into this article or section. ... The lunar phase depends on the Moons position in orbit around Earth. ... Apparent magnitude: up to -12. ... Panhellenic Games is the collective term for four separate sports festivals held in ancient Greece. ...


Myth and cosmology

The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690.
The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690.

Another motive for studying the sky is to understand and explain the universe. In pre-scientific times myth was a tool for achieving this and the explanations, while not scientific, are cosmologies. Drawing by Johann Hevelius of constellation Argo, scanned from a facsimile print. ... Drawing by Johann Hevelius of constellation Argo, scanned from a facsimile print. ... The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690 Argo Navis (or simply Argo) was a large southern constellation representing the Argo, the ship used by Jason and the Argonauts in Greek mythology. ... A typical daytime sky. ... Universe is a word derived from the Old French univers, which in turn comes from the Latin roots unus (one) and versus (a form of vertere, to turn). Based on observations of the observable universe, physicists attempt to describe the whole of space-time, including all matter and energy and... For other uses, see Myth. ... Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... Cosmology, from the Greek: κοσμολογία (cosmologia, κόσμος (cosmos) order + λογια (logia) discourse) is the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanitys place in it. ...


The Incas arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre.[18] These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four suyus, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the Andes. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky.[19] In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a perpendicular fashion. For other meanings of Inca, see Inca (disambiguation). ... Nickname: La Ciudad Imperial (The Imperial City) Location in Peru Coordinates: Country Peru Region Cusco Province Cusco Founded 1100 A.D. 1st Government  - Type Democracy  - Mayor Carlos Valencia Miranda Elevation 3,310 m (10,859. ... The Andes between Chile and Argentina Planes view of the Andes, Peru. ... It has been suggested that Andromeda-Milky Way collision be merged into this article or section. ... Fig. ...


The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The Forbidden City in Beijing is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions the Chinese saw five, North, South, East, West and Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing.[20] One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as Feng Shui. This article is about the Chinese imperial palace in Beijing. ...   (Chinese:  ; Pinyin: BÄ›ijÄ«ng; IPA: ), a metropolis in northern China, is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). ... {{Otheruses4|north the direction}} [[Image:CompassRose16_N.png|thumb|250px|right|[[Compass rose]] with north highlighted and at top]] {{wiktionary}} <nowiki>North is o<nowiki>ne of the [[4 (numbe</nowiki> Block quote r)|four]] cardinal directions, specifically the direction that, in Western culture, is treated as the primary direction: north... A compass rose with South highlighted South is most commonly a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography. ... The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST, internally called HT-7U) is a project being undertaken to construct an experimental superconducting tokamak magnetic fusion energy reactor in Hefei, the capital city of Anhui Province, in eastern China. ... A compass rose with west highlighted This article refers to the cardinal direction; for other uses see West (disambiguation). ... In geometry, the centre (or center) of an object is a point in some sense in the middle of the object. ... In astronomy, circumpolar constellations are those that, from the viewers latitude, never set. ... F&#275;ng Shu&#464; (&#39080;&#27700; &#8211; literally, wind and water pronounced fung shuway), which may be more than 3000 years old, is the ancient practice of placement to achieve harmony with the environment. ...


There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the constellations. The Barasana of the Amazon plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees.[21] This provides planning for food procurement at a time when hunger could otherwise be a problem. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Map of the Amazon rainforest ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. Yellow line encloses the Amazon rainforest. ...


A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of continuing and occasionally fractious debate.


Displays of power

The Intihuatana (“tie the sun”) at Machu Picchu is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site’s possible astrological role
The Intihuatana (“tie the sun”) at Machu Picchu is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site’s possible astrological role

The most common popular image of archaeoastronomy is the expression of hidden knowledge and power. By using stellar symbolism one can make claims of heavenly power. marius ivanov altFactor File links The following pages link to this file: Machu Picchu ... marius ivanov altFactor File links The following pages link to this file: Machu Picchu ... Machu Picchu (Quechua: Machu Piqchu Old Peak; sometimes called the Lost City of the Incas) is a well-preserved pre-Columbian Inca ruin located at 2,430 m (7,970 ft)[1] on a mountain ridge. ... An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart &#8212; This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: &#945;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#955;&#959...


By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of Achilles described by Homer is also a catalogue of constellations.[22] In North America shields depicted in Comanche petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism.[23] The Wrath of Achilles, by François-Léon Benouville (1821–1859) (Musée Fabre) In Greek mythology, Achilles (also Akhilleus or Achilleus) (Ancient Greek: ) was a hero of the Trojan War, the central character and greatest warrior of Homers Iliad, which takes for its theme, not the War... Homer (Greek: , HómÄ“ros) was an early Greek poet and aoidos (rhapsode) traditionally credited with the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey. ... For other uses, see Comanche (disambiguation). ... Petroglyphs on a Bishop Tuff tableland Petroglyph on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Petroglyph Point Petroglyphs on Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument Petroglyphs from Scandinavia (Häljesta, Västmanland in Sweden). ...


Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. In Egypt the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun.[24] The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. A solstice is either of the two events of the year when the sun is at its greatest distance from the equatorial plane. ... Amun (also spelt Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imenand, and spelt in Greek as Ammon, and Hammon) was the name of a deity, in Egyptian mythology, who gradually rose to become one of the most important, before disappearing back into the shadows. ... Map of Karnak, showing major temple complexes Interior of Temple First pylon of precinct of Amun viewed from the west Al-Karnak (Arabic الكرنك, in Ancient Egypt was named Ipet Sut, the most venerated place) is a small village in Egypt, located on the banks of the River Nile some 2. ... The Obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle between the plane of the Earths equator and the ecliptic plane in which the Earth rotates around the Sun. ...


In a later period the Serapeum in Alexandria was also said to have contained a solar alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of Serapis thus symbolising the Sun saluting the god.[25] A Serapeum is a temple or other religious institution dedicated to the syncretic Hellenistic-Egyptian god Serapis, who combined aspects of Osiris and Apis in a humanized form that was palatable to the Ptolemaic Greeks of Alexandria. ... Alexandria (Greek: , Coptic: , Arabic: , Egyptian Arabic: Iskindireyya), (population of 3. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... Serapis can refer to: A series of British ships named HMS Serapis. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ...


The use of astronomy at Stonehenge continues to be a matter of vigorous discussion. For other meanings of Stonehenge, see: Stonehenge (disambiguation) Stonehenge is a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument located near Amesbury in the English county of Wiltshire, about 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. ...


Archaeoastronomical organisations and publications

There are currently two academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy. ISAAC—the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture—was founded in 1995 and now sponsors the Oxford conferences and Archaeoastronomy — the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC—the Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture—is slightly older; it was created in 1992. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis. This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ...


Additionally the Journal for the History of Astronomy publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes it also published an annual supplement Archaeoastronomy.


References

  1. ^ A.P. Trotter, Stonehenge as an Astronomical Instrument, Antiquity Vol 1:1, 1927, 42–53
  2. ^ R.J.C. Atkinson, Moonshine on Stonehenge, Antiquity Vol 49:159, 1966, 212–6
  3. ^ E. MacKie, Science and Society in Prehistoric Britain, Paul Elek, 1977, ISBN 0-236-40041-X
  4. ^ M. Zeilik, The Ethnoastronomy of the Historic Pueblos, I: Calendrical Sun Watching, Archaeoastronomy No. 8 (Supplement to the Journal for the History of Astronomy), 1985, pp. S1–S24; The Ethnoastronomy of the Historic Pueblos, II: Moon Watching, Archaeoastronomy No. 10 (Supplement to the Journal for the History of Astronomy), 1986, pp. S1–S22.
  5. ^ C.L.N. Ruggles, Archaeoastronomy in the 1990s, Group D Publications. 1993, ix, ISBN 1-874152-01-2
  6. ^ A. F. Aveni (ed.), Archaeoastronomy in the New World: American Primitive Astronomy, CUP, 1982, ISBN 0-521-24731-4; D. C. Heggie (ed.), Archaeoastronomy in the Old World, CUP, 1982, ISBN 0-521-24734-9
  7. ^ A.F. Aveni, World Archaeoastronomy, CUP, 1989, xi–xiii, ISBN 0-521-34180-9
  8. ^ C. van Driel-Murray, Regarding the Stars, TRAC 2001: Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Glasgow 2001. eds. M Carruthers, C. van Driel-Murray, A. Gardner, J. Lucas, L. Revell and E. Swift. Oxbow Books. 2002, 96–103, ISBN 1-84217-075-9
  9. ^ K. Spence, Ancient Egyptian Chronoology and the astronomical orientation of the pyramids, Nature, Vol 406, 16 November 2000, 320–324.
  10. ^ K. Kintigh, I wasn’t going to say anything, but since you asked: Archaeoastronomy and Archaeology, Archaeoastronomy & Ethnoastronomy News 5, 1992
  11. ^ Brunton Pocket Transit Instruction Manual, p. 22
  12. ^ Astrological Things What is Your Sign, Really ?
  13. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, I.74
  14. ^ D. Turton and C.L.N. Ruggles, Agreeing to Disagree: The Measurement of Duration in a Southwestern Ethiopian Community, Current Anthropology Vol. 19.3, 1978, 585–600
  15. ^ A.F. Aveni, Empires of Time, Basic Books, 1989, ISBN 0-465-01950-1
  16. ^ S. McCluskey, The Inconstant Moon: Lunar Astronomies in Different Cultures, Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture Vol 15. 2000, 14–31
  17. ^ A. Salt and E. Boutsikas, Knowing when to consult the oracle at Delphi. Antiquity Vol 79:305, 2005, 562–72
  18. ^ B. Bauer and D. Dearborn, Astronomy and empire in the ancient Andes: the cultural origins of Inca sky watching, University of Texas, 1995, ISBN 0-292-70837-8
  19. ^ G. Urton, At the crossroads of the earth and the sky: an Andean cosmology, University of Texas. 1981, ISBN 0-292-70349-X
  20. ^ E.C. Krupp, Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings, John Wiley and Sons, 1997, 196–9, ISBN 0-471-32975-4
  21. ^ M. Hoskin, The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy, CUP, 1999, 15–6, ISBN 0-521-57600-8
  22. ^ R. Hannah, The Constellations on Achilles’ Shield (Iliad 18. 485–489). Electronic Antiquity II.4, 1994, 15–6
  23. ^ E.C. Krupp, Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings, John Wiley and Sons, 1997, 252–3, ISBN 0-471-32975-4
  24. ^ E.C. Krupp, Light in the Temples, Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom, ed. C.L.N. Ruggles, 1988, 473–499, ISBN 0-521-33381-4
  25. ^ Rufinus, The destruction of the Serapeum

Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ... Richard John Copland Atkinson (1920 – 1994) was a British prehistorian and archaeologist. ... Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... Nature is one of the most prominent scientific journals, first published on 4 November 1869. ... Antiquity is one of the worlds leading learned journals dedicated to the subject of archaeology. ... Edwin C. Krupp is an American astronomer and the director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles since 1974. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... Edwin C. Krupp is an American astronomer and the director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles since 1974. ... Edwin C. Krupp is an American astronomer and the director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles since 1974. ... Tyrannius Rufinus or Rufinus of Aquileia (between 340 and 345&#8211;410 CE) was a monk, historian, and theologian. ...

See also

This is a list of sites where claims for the use of astronomy have been made, sorted by country. ... Antikythera mechanism A device for plotting positions of heavenly bodies. ... Development of the European Megalithic Culture The European Megalithic Culture was a prehistoric (and preliterate) civilisation based primarily in Western Europe, that has left a legacy of large stone monuments, or megaliths, scattered widely across the continent. ... Many of the Australian Aboriginal cultures have a strong element of astronomy. ... Aboriginal stone arrangements are a ritual art form contructed by Indigenous Australians, and are a form of rock art. ... At a major lunar standstill, which takes place every 18. ... Medicine wheels were commonly used by North American natives such as the Ojibwa. ...

External links

University of Leicester seen from Victoria Park - Left to right: the Department of Engineering, the Attenborough tower, the Charles Wilson building. ...

Journals