Aerial area bombardment is the policy of indiscriminate bombing of an enemy's cities, for the purpose of destroying the enemy's means of producing military materiel, communications, government centres and civilian morale. It differs from the use of bombs to target purely military targets. Materiel (from the French for material) is the equipment and supplies in Military and commercial supply chain management. ...

The practice came to prominence during the Second World War with the use of large numbers of unguided gravity bombs, often with a high proportion of incendiary bombs, to effect indiscriminate bombing of the target region - either to destroy personnel and/or materiel, or as a means to demoralize the enemy (see terror bombing). Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ... A U.S. developed B-61 gravity bomb. ... Incendiary bombs are bombs designed to start fires or destroy sensitive equipment using materials such as napalm, thermite, or white phosphorus. ... Materiel (from the French for material) is the equipment and supplies in Military and commercial supply chain management. ... Morale is a term for the capacity of people to maintain belief in an institution or a goal. ... Terror bombing is a strategy of deliberately bombing civilian targets and strafing civilians in order to break the morale of the enemy and make the civilian population of the enemy panic. ...

Initially, this was effected by multiple aircraft, often returning to the target in waves. Nowadays, a large bomber or missile can be used to create the same effect on a small area (an airfield, for example) by releasing a relatively large number of smaller bombs.

The term carpet bombing is also used. The phrase carpet bombing refers to the use of large numbers of unguided gravity bombs, often with a high proportion of incendiary bombs, to attempt the complete destruction of a target region, either to destroy personnel and materiel, or as a means to demoralize the enemy (see terror bombing). ...

Origins

The first instances of aerial bombing of cities occurred during the First World War with bombing attacks by Zeppelins over England. They were first ineffective, but generated a wave of hysteria, partially attributed to media. This revealed the tactics potential as a weapon that was of use for propagandists on both sides. Attacks continued and were also joined by heavier-than-air craft. These were relatively minor raids by later standards but had the effect of diverting resources of guns and aircraft to defence of the realm. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Terror bombing. ... Ypres, 1917, in the vicinity of the Battle of Passchendaele. ... The famous Zeppelin Hindenburg. ...

During the post-World War I period, the British used aerial bombardment to deter colonial uprisings, again proving the strategy's value as a force of "negotiation". A number of military experts in Britain believed that aerial bombardment would advance along these lines, and prophesized that the first strike would be important in the next war. They felt that neither warring population would stand for this treatment.

During the Spanish Civil War, the bombing of Guernica by German units, under Franco-Spanish command, including the Condor Legion resulted in extensive destruction of the small town and casualties from 500 to 1500. Though the figures remained small, weaponry was steadily improving, already suggesting what was to come. Combatants Spanish Republic CNT-FAI UGT POUM Soviet Union International Brigades Spanish State Falangists Carlists Fascist Italy Nazi Germany Commanders Manuel Azaña Francisco Largo Caballero Juan Negrín Francisco Franco Casualties Civilians killed/wounded = hundreds of thousands The Spanish Civil War, which lasted from July 17, 1936 to April... People in destroyed Guernica. ... Hermann Göring delivering an honour (likely to be the Spanienkreuz, Spanish Cross) to a member of the Legion Condor (April 1939) The Condor Legion was a unit of Nazi Germanys air force which was sent as volunteers to support the right wing Nationalists (i. ...

World War II

Area bombing in WW2 began with tactical German bombings of Warsaw, Frampol and Wieluń during September Campaign in Poland. Warsaw was partly destroyed (10% of all buildings) and two towns were heavily damaged. It is believed that Frampol had no targetted industry and was not stationing military units. Warsaw (Polish: , (?), in full The Capital City of Warsaw, Polish: Miasto StoÅ‚eczne Warszawa) is the capital of Poland and its largest city. ... The Bombing of Frampol happened during the Polish Defence War of 1939. ... WieluÅ„ is a town in central Poland with 25,500 inhabitants (1995). ...

Some historians believe that, in the case of Frampol, the Luftwaffe the bombing was conducted in order to research how effective aerial bombardment could be.

In the book, "Eyes on the Sky", Wolfgang Schreyer writes:

Frampol was chosen as an experimental object, because test bombers, flying at low speed, weren't endangered by AA fire. Also, the centrally placed town hall was an ideal orientation point for the crews. We watched possibility of orientation after visible signs, and also the size of village, what guaranteed that bombs nevertheless fall down on Frampol. From one side it should make easier the note of probe, from second side it should confirm the efficiency of used bombs.

Frampol before (left) and after (right) the Luftwaffe bomb attack

The fall of Poland did not end the war and after the Sitzkrieg, combat continued. Germany attacked through the Lowlands, bombing Rotterdam after the Dutch refused to agree to terms. The bombing sent a powerful message and, as pre-war experts had predicted, aerial bombardment demonstrated its potential as a tool of persuasion. Peace was arranged. Bombing of Frampol. ... Bombing of Frampol. ... The city heart of Rotterdam after the bombing, the ruin of the (now restored) Laurens Kerk is the only building that reminds people of the Rotterdams medieval architecture. ...

Even after the evacuation at Dunkirk, the United Kingdom resolved to keep fighting. With the Battle of Britain came the Blitz, which ended when Germany deciding to instead launch its campaign against the Soviet Union. In the coming years, however, the Allies fine-tuned the strategy of area bombardment to its horrific capacity. Without forces on continental Europe, the area bombardment campagin became central to its war effort. However, Luftwaffe air superiority across Western Europe meant that the RAF's bombers could only operate over Germany at night. Thus, precision bombing was an impossible task. Location of Dunkirk in the arrondissement of Dunkirk Location within France Dunkirks seafront Map of Dunkirk courtesy of the Calgary Highlanders. ... Combatants United Kingdom Germany Commanders Hugh Dowding Hermann Göring Albert Kesselring Strength 700+ Grew to nearly 1000 during end of the Battle. ... Heinkel He 111 German bomber over the Surrey Docks, Southwark, London (German propaganda photomontage) The Blitz was the sustained bombing of the United Kingdom by Nazi Germany between 7 September 1940 and 16 May 1941. ...

The purpose of the area bombardment of cities was laid out in a British Air Staff paper, dated September 23 1941: September 23 is the 266th day of the year (267th in leap years). ...

"The ultimate aim of an attack on a town area is to break the morale of the population which occupies it. To ensure this, we must achieve two things: first, we must make the town physically uninhabitable and, secondly, we must make the people conscious of constant personal danger. The immediate aim, is therefore, twofold, namely, to produce (i) destruction and (ii) fear of death." ^[1]

This directive is also documented in the April 5 1945 response of Chief of Air Staff Charles Portal to Churchill's letter on area bombing, written after Churchill had expressed his concern, in a telegram initially sent on 28 March, 1945 but that was withdrawn, redrafted and resubmitted on 1 April, 1945^[2]: April 5 is the 95th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (96th in leap years). ... March 28 is the 87th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (88th in leap years). ... April 1 is the 91st day of the year (92nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 274 days remaining. ...

The primary object of the Combined Bomber Offensive laid down in the Casablanca directive of the 21st January, 1943, was “the progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial and economic systems and the undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where their capacity for armed resistance is fatally weakened.”^[3]

This response goes on to assure Churchill:

"We appreciate the importance of refraining from the unnecessary destruction of towns and facilities which will be needed by our own troops or for Allied reconstruction purposes."

Professor Lindemann was liked and trusted by Winston Churchill. Churchill appointed him the British government's leading scientific adviser with a seat in the Cabinet. In 1942, Lindemann presented the "dehousing paper" to the Cabinet advocating the area bombardment of German cities in a strategic bombing campaign. It was accepted by the Cabinet and Air Marshal Harris was appointed to carry out the task. It became an important part of the total war waged against Germany. Professor Lindemann's paper put forward the theory of attacking major industrial centres in order to deliberately destroy as many homes and houses as possible. Working class homes were to be targeted because they had a higher density and fire storms were more likely. This would displace the German workforce and reduce their ability to work. His calculations showed that the RAF's Bomber Command would be able to destroy the majority of German houses located in cities quite quickly. The plan was highly controversial even before it started, but the Cabinet thought that bombing was the only option available to directly attack Germany (as a major invasion of the continent was years away), and the Soviets were demanding that the Western Allies do something to relieve the pressure on the Eastern Front. Few in Britain opposed this policy, but there were three notable opponents in Parliament, Bishop George Bell, and the Labour MPs Richard Stokes and Alfred Salter. Professor Frederick Alexander Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell (April 5, 1886 - July 3, 1957) was a physicist who became an influential scientific adviser to the British government and a close associate of Winston Churchill. ... This article is becoming very long. ... A cabinet is a body of high-ranking members of government, typically representing the executive branch. ... Strategic Bombing during World War II was unlike anything the world had previously witnessed. ... Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir Arthur Travers Harris, 1st Baronet (April 13, 1892 - April 5, 1984), commonly known as Bomber Harris, and often within the RAF as Butcher Harris[1], was commander of RAF Bomber Command and later a Marshal of the... This article is about the military doctrine of total war. ... Bomber Command is an organizational military unit, generally subordinate to the air force of a country. ... The Eastern Front was the theatre of combat between Nazi Germany and its allies against the Soviet Union during World War II. It was somewhat separate from the other theatres of the war, not only geographically, but also for its scale and ferocity. ... George Kennedy Allen Bell (born February 4, 1883 in Hayling Island, Hampshire; died October 3, 1958 in Canterbury) was an Anglican theologian, Dean of Canterbury , Bishop of Chichester, member of House of Lords and a pioneer of the Ecumenical Movement. ... A Member of Parliament, or MP, is a representative elected by the voters of an electoral district to a parliament; in the Westminster system, specifically to the lower house. ... Richard Rapier Stokes ( 1897– 1957) was a British Labour Party politician who served briefly as Lord Privy Seal in 1951. ... Dr Alfred Salter (1873-1945) studied medicine at Guys Hospital and on qualifying set up a medical practice at the Methodist Bermondsey Settlement which had been established Rev. ...

The remains of german town of Wesel after intensive allied area bombing in 1945 (destruction rate 98 % of all buildings)

Though it was never explicitly declared, the nearest the British got to a declaration was in an Air Ministry directive issued to Harris on 14 February 1942, which said "You are accordingly authorised to use your forces without restriction", and listing a series of 'Primary targets' which included Essen, Duisburg, Düsseldorf and Cologne. 'Secondary targets' included Braunschweig, Lübeck, Rostock, Bremen, Kiel, Hanover, Frankfurt, Mannheim, Stuttgart and Schweinfurt. It stated that "Operations should now be focussed on the morale of the enemy civilian population and in particular, the industrial workers". Lest there be any confusion, Sir Charles Portal wrote to Air Chief Marshall Norman Bottomley on the 15 February "..I suppose it is clear that the aiming points will be the built up areas, and not, for instance, the dockyards or aircraft factories" Image File history File links Wesel_1945. ... Image File history File links Wesel_1945. ... Wesel is a city (population about 61,689 in 2004) in Germany, located at the point where the Lippe River empties into the Rhine. ... The Air Ministry was formerly a department of the United Kingdom Government, established in 1918 with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the (then newly formed) Royal Air Force. ... February 14 is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... [Essen], german for Meal [essen], german for eat Essen is the name of the following places: Essen, Germany, one of the major cities of the Ruhr area Essen, Belgium Essen, Netherlands, a village in the province of Groningen German: to eat, eating, food This is a disambiguation page — a navigational... Duisburg is a German city and port in the western part of the Ruhr Area (Ruhrgebiet) in North Rhine-Westphalia. ... Düsseldorf is the capital city of the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and (together with Cologne and the Ruhr Area) the economic center of Western Germany. ... Köln redirects here. ... The Bombing of Braunschweig (or Brunswick) in World War II on 15 October 1944 by the Royal Air Forces No. ... Lübeck ( pronunc. ... Rostock is a city in northern Germany. ... Bremen may mean: Bremen (city), the city in Germany itself Bremen Airport Bremen (state), which comprises the cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven Archbishopric of Bremen, a historical state to the north of the city Duchy of Bremen, a historical state created on the secularization of the archbishopric in 1648 Bremen... Kiel ( ) is a city in northern Germany and the capital of the Bundesland Schleswig-Holstein. ... Hanover (German: Hannover []), on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), Germany. ... Main Station Frankfurt Frankfurt International Airport For other uses, see Frankfurt (disambiguation). ... Mannheim is a city in Germany. ... Stuttgart [], a city located in southern Germany, is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg with a population of approximately 590,000 (as of September 2005) in the city and around 3 million in the metropolitan area. ... Schweinfurt is a city in the Unterfranken region of Bavaria in Germany on the right bank of the canalized Main, which is here spanned by several bridges, 27 km North-East of Würzburg. ... RAF Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal (left) and Polish Commander in Chief Władysław Sikorski (right) visit an airbase of the 300th Polish Bomber Squadron in England. ... Air Chief Marshal Sir Norman Howard Bottomley KCB CIE DSO AFC (September 18, 1891 - August 13, 1970) was the Yorkshire-born successor to Arthur Bomber Harris as Commander-in-Chief of Royal Air Force Bomber Command in 1945. ... February 15 is the 46th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

The first true practical demonstrations were on the 24 March 1942, when 234 aircraft bombed with incendaries the ancient Hanseatic port of Lübeck. This target was picked not because it was an important military target, but in fact because it was unimportant, lightly defended and, in Harris' words 'built more like a fire lighter than a city'. The ancient timber structures burned well, and the raid destroyed most of the town centre. A few days later, Rostock suffered the same fate. March 24 is the 83rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (84th in leap years). ... Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ...

However, the most startling, awesome examples of area bombing were the 'Thousand Bomber Raids'. Bomber Command was able by organization and drafting in as many aircraft as possible to assemble very large forces which could then attack a single area, overwhelming the defences. The aircraft would be staggered so that they would arrive over the target in succession, the "bomber stream". A map of part of the Kammhuber Line showing the belt and nightfighter boxes through which the bomber stream flew The bomber stream was a tactic developed by the Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command to overwhelm the German aerial defences of the Kammhuber Line during World War II. The...

On 30 May 1942, between 00:47 and 02:25 hours, in Operation Millennium 1,046 aircraft dropped over 2,000 tons of high explosive and incendaries on the medieval town of Cologne and burned it from end to end. The devastation was total. The fires could be seen 600 miles away at an altitude of 20,000 feet. Three thousand three hundred houses destroyed, 10,000 damaged. Twelve thousand separate fires raged destroying 36 factories, damaging 270 more and leaving 45,000 people with nowhere to live or work. Only 384 civilians and 85 soldiers were killed, but thousands left the city. Bomber Command lost 40 aircraft. May 30 is the 150th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (151st in leap years). ... The City of Cologne was bombed in 262 separate air raids by the Allies during World War II. During the war the Royal Air Force (RAF) bombed Cologne more than thirty one times. ... Köln redirects here. ...

Two further Thousand-bomber raids were executed over Essen and Bremen, but neither so utterly shook both sides as the scale of the destruction at Cologne. The effects of the massive raids using a combination of Blockbuster bombs (to blow off roofs) and incendiaries (to start the fires) created firestorms in some cites. The most extreme examples of which were caused by Operation Gomorrah, the attack on Hamburg, (45,000 dead), attack on Kassel (10,000 dead), the attack on Darmstadt (12,500 dead), the attack on Pforzheim (21,200 dead), the attack on Swinemuende (23,000 dead) and the attack on Dresden (35,000 dead). US bombers operating in the Pacific War created the same firestorms in the readily flammable Japanese cities such as Tokyo (120,000 dead). [Essen], german for Meal [essen], german for eat Essen is the name of the following places: Essen, Germany, one of the major cities of the Ruhr area Essen, Belgium Essen, Netherlands, a village in the province of Groningen German: to eat, eating, food This is a disambiguation page — a navigational... Bremen may mean: Bremen (city), the city in Germany itself Bremen Airport Bremen (state), which comprises the cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven Archbishopric of Bremen, a historical state to the north of the city Duchy of Bremen, a historical state created on the secularization of the archbishopric in 1648 Bremen... A 4000lb Blockbuster or Cookie about to be loaded into a de Havilland Mosquito Blockbuster was the name given to several of the largest conventional bombs used in World War II by the Royal Air Force (RAF). ... A firestorm in Hamburg (Germany) during WWII A firestorm is the mass movement of air resulting from fire, creating a fire of extreme intensity over a wide area. ... Firestorm in Hamburg Operation Gomorrah was the military codename for a series of air raids conducted by the Royal Air Force on the city of Hamburg beginning in the end of July 1943. ... The large port city of Hamburg was very heavily bombed many times by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) during World War II. During one of the attacks in July 1943 a firestorm was created that caused many thousands of casualties. ... The city of Kassel in Germany was severely bombed during World War II and more than 10,000 civilians died during these raids. ... During the latter stages of World War II Pforzheim, a town in south west Germany was bombed on a number of times. ... The bombing of Dresden led by the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and involving the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) between February 13 and February 15, 1945 remains one of the more controversial Allied actions of World War II. Historian Frederick Taylor says: The destruction of Dresden has an... Tokyo , literally Eastern capital)   is the capital and one of the forty-seven prefectures of Japan. ...

RAF Bomber Command Bomber Command badge RAF Bomber Command was the organisation that controlled the RAFs bomber forces. ...

Vietnam War

During the Vietnam War, the Americans, due to their inability to gain the upper hand against a guerilla war conducted by the Vietcong, resorted to area bombing the forests and villages with Napalm and Agent Orange, in order to deprive the Vietcong of their jungle cover, but to no avail. The rules of engagement said villages were never to be bombed, but critics say that wayward bombs did hit villages. Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... A Napalm airstrike in Vietnam. ... Vietnam. ...

Children, Kim Phuc Phan Thi in left-center, runs down a road near Trang Bang after an ARVN napalm attack on villages suspected of harboring NLF fighters in June 1972. Photo by Huynh Cong Ut, which became a symbol of the international movement against U.S. involvement in Vietnam. (© Nick Ut/The Associated Press)

Image File history File links TrangBang. ... Image File history File links TrangBang. ... Kim Phúc Phan Thị Kim Phúc known as Kim Phuc (born 1963) was the subject of a famous photo from the Vietnam war. ... A Napalm airstrike in Vietnam. ... Taken June 8, 1972, this photograph earned Ut the Pulitzer prize, and Thi, center, a great deal of attention throughout her life. ... Taken June 8, 1972, this photograph earned Ut the Pulitzer prize, and Thi, center, a great deal of attention throughout her life. ... Associated Press, or AP, is an American news agency, the worlds largest such organization. ...

First Gulf War

Precision bombing in the sense of tactical bombing had been the case from the start of aerial use of bombs. It was in the Second World War that the use of precision bombing for strategic targets was developed (see Dambusters and Tallboy bomb). The developments in guided munitions meant that the Coalition forces in the First Gulf War in 1990 were able to use it extensively. This has not ended aerial area bombardment completely, because it has been used several times since as a means of softening up front line enemy positions. Precision bombing is the desired skill of being able to bomb single buildings in a built up area, without causing any damage to the surrounding buildings, or the ability to place a bomb by air to within extremely accurate limits. ... Operation Chastise was the official name for the attacks on German dams on May 17, 1943 in World War II using a specially developed bouncing bomb. The attack was carried out by Royal Air Force No. ... The Tallboy was a bomb developed by Barnes Wallis and brought into operation by the British in 1944. ... See also: 2003 invasion of Iraq and Gulf War (disambiguation) C Company, 1st Battalion, The Staffordshire Regiment, 1st UK Armoured Division The Persian Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States. ...

Aerial area bombardment and international law

International law up to 1945

International law relating to aerial area bombardment before and during World War II rests on the treaties of 1864, 1899, 1907 which constituted the definition of most of the laws of at that time — which, despite repeated diplomatic attempts, was not updated in the immediate run up to World War II. The most relevant of these treaties are the Hague Conventions of 1907 because they were the last treaties ratified before 1939 which specify the laws of war on aerial bombardment. Of these treaties there are two which have a direct bearing on this issue of bombardment. These are "Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907"^[4] and "Laws of War: Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War (Hague IX); October 18, 1907"^[5]. It is significant that there is a different treaty which should be invoked for bombardment of land by land (Hague IV) and of land by sea (Hague IX) ^[6]. Hague IV which reaffirmed and updated Hague II (1899) ^[7] contains the following clauses: The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and 1907, respectively, and were, along with the Geneva Conventions, among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the nascent body of international law. ... October 18 is the 291st day of the year (292nd in leap years). ... 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... October 18 is the 291st day of the year (292nd in leap years). ... 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

Article 25: The attack or bombardment of towns, villages, habitations or buildings which are not defended, is prohibited.

Article 26: The Commander of an attacking force, before commencing a bombardment, except in the case of an assault, should do all he can to warn the authorities.

Article 27: In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps should be taken to spare as far as possible edifices devoted to religion, art, science, and charity, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not used at the same time for military purposes.

The besieged should indicate these buildings or places by some particular and visible signs, which should previously be notified to the assailants.

In 1923 a draft convention, promoted by the United States was proposed: The Hague Rules of Air Warfare, December, 1922-February, 1923",^[8] There are number of articles which would have directly affected how nations used aerial bombardment and defended against it; these are articles 18, 22 and 24. It was, however, never adopted in legally binding form. ^[9]

The subordination of the law of air warfare to the law of ground warfare was arguably established by the Greco-German arbitration tribunal of 1927-30. It found that the 1907 Hague Convention on "The Laws and Customs of War on Land" applied to the German attacks in Greece during World War I:^[10] This concerned both Article 25 and Article 26.

The U.S. Air Force Law Review argues that "if international law is not enforced, persistent violations can conceivably be adopted as customary practice, permitting conduct that was once prohibited"^[11] Even if the Greco-German arbitration tribunal findings had established the rules for aerial bombardment, by 1945, the belligerents of World War II had ignored the preliminary bombardment procedures that the Greco-German arbitration tribunal had recognized.^[12]

In response to a League of Nations declaration against bombardment from the air^[13], a draft convention in Amsterdam of 1938^[14] would have provided specific definitions of what constituted a "undefended" town, excessive civilian casualties and appropriate warning. This draft convention makes the standard of being undefended quite high - any military units or anti-aircraft within the radius qualifies a town as defended. This convention, like the 1923 draft, was not ratified, nor even close to being ratified, when hostilities broke out in Europe. While the two conventions offer a guideline to what the belligerent powers were considering before the war, neither of these documents came to be legally binding.

After the war the judgement of the Nuremberg Trials,^[15] the records the decision that by 1939 these rules laid down in the 1907 Hague Convention were recognised by all civilised nations, and were regarded as declaratory of the laws and customs of war. Under this post-war decision, a country did not have to have ratified the 1907 Hague conventions in order to be bound by them ^[16]. The Süddeutsche Zeitung announces The Verdict in Nuremberg. ...

In 1963 the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the subject of a Japanese judicial review in Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State. The review draws several distinctions which are pertinent to both conventional and atomic aerial bombardment. Based on international law found in Hague Convention of 1907 IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land and IX - Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War, and the Hague Draft Rules of Air Warfare of 1922–1923 the Court drew a distinction between "Targeted Aerial Bombardment" and indiscriminate area bombardment, that the court called "Blind Aerial Bombardment", and also a distinction between a defended and undefended city.^[17] "In principle, a defended city is a city which resists an attempt at occupation by land forces. A city even with defence installations and armed forces cannot be said to be a defended city if it is far away from the battlefield and is not in immediate danger of occupation by the enemy."^[18] The court ruled that blind aerial bombardment is only permitted in the immediate vicinity of the operations of land forces and that only targeted aerial bombardment of military installations is permitted further from the front. It also ruled that, in such an event, the incidental death of civilians and the destruction of civilian property during targeted aerial bombardment was not unlawful.^[19] The court acknowledged that the concept of a military objective was enlarged under conditions of total war, but stated that the distinction between the two did not disappear.^[20] The court also ruled that when military targets were concentrated in a comparatively small area, and where defence installations against air raids were very strong, that when the destruction of non-military objectives is small in proportion to the large military interests, or necessity, such destruction is lawful.^[19] So in the judgement of the Court, because of the immense power of the bombs, and the distance from enemy (Allied) land forces, the bombing of both Hiroshima and Nagasaki "was an illegal act of hostilities under international law as it existed at that time, as an indiscriminate bombardment of undefended cities".^[21] The Fat Man mushroom cloud resulting from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rises 18 km (11 mi, 60,000 ft) into the air from the hypocenter. ... Judicial review is the power of a court to review a law or an official act of a government employee or agent for constitutionality or for the violation of basic principles of justice. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ryuichi Shimoda et al. ... The aerial bombing of cities became a common tactic in World War II. World War I The first ever aerial bombardment of civilians was on January 19, 1915, in which two German Zeppelins dropped 24 fifty-kilogram high-explosive bombs and ineffective three-kilogram incendiaries on Great Yarmouth, Sheringham, Kings... The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and 1907, respectively, and were, along with the Geneva Conventions, among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the nascent body of international law. ... This article is about the military doctrine of total war. ... The group of countries known as the Allies of World War II consisted of those nations opposed to the Axis Powers during the Second World War. ...

Not all governments and scholars of international law agree with the analysis and conclusions of the Shimoda review, because there was no positive international law governing aerial bombardment during World War II, that as Colonel Javier Guisández Gómez, at the International Institute of Humanitarian Law in San Remo, states: The name San Remo can refer to several different things: San Remo, Italy – a large town in Italy San Remo, Victoria – a town in Victoria, Australia The San Remo – an apartment building in New York City This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists...

In examining these events [Anti-city strategy/blitz] in the light of international humanitarian law, it should be borne in mind that during the Second World War there was no agreement, treaty, convention or any other instrument governing the protection of the civilian population or civilian property, as the Conventions then in force dealt only with the protection of the wounded and the sick on the battlefield and in naval warfare, hospital ships, the laws and customs of war and the protection of prisoners of war.^[12]

This leaves the legal status of aerial bombardment during World War II ambiguous and open to other interpretations, for example one of the reasons given by John Bolton, U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations, for the USA not agreeing to be bound by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court is that International Humanitarian Law (IHL), also known as the law of war, the laws and customs of war or the law of armed conflict, is the legal corpus comprised of the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Regulations, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and customary international law. ... There are several people named John Bolton, including: John Gatenby Bolton – British-Australian astronomer (1922–1993) John R. Bolton – U.S. politician and diplomat U.S. Ambassador to the U.N. (2005-current) (b. ... ... Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court Opened for signature June 17, 1998[1] at Rome Entered into force July 1, 2002 Conditions for entry into force 60 ratifications Parties 99[2] The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (or Rome Statute) is the treaty which established the International...

A fair reading of the [Rome Statute], for example, leaves the objective observer unable to answer with confidence whether the United States was guilty of war crimes for its aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II. Indeed, if anything, a straightforward reading of the language probably indicates that the court would find the United States guilty. A fortiori, these provisions seem to imply that the United States would have been guilty of a war crime for dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This is intolerable and unacceptable.^[22]

International law since 1945 This page includes English translations of several Latin phrases and abbreviations such as . ...

In the post war environment, a series of treaties governing the laws of war were adopted starting in 1949. These Geneva Conventions would come into force, in no small part, because of a general reaction against the practices of the Second World War. In 1977 Protocol I was adopted as an amendment to the Geneva conventions. The two parts of the laws of war: Law concerning acceptable practices while engaged in war, like the Geneva Conventions, is called Jus in bello; while law concerning allowable justifications for armed force is called Jus ad bellum. ... Development of the Geneva Conventions from 1864 to 1949. ... Protocol I: Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts. ...

The International Court of Justice gave an advisory opinion in July 1996 on the Legality of the Threat Or Use Of Nuclear Weapons.^[23] Peace Palace, seat of the ICJ. The International Court of Justice (known colloquially as the World Court or ICJ; French: Cour internationale de justice) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. ...

See also

• Carpet bombing

The phrase carpet bombing refers to the use of large numbers of unguided gravity bombs, often with a high proportion of incendiary bombs, to attempt the complete destruction of a target region, either to destroy personnel and materiel, or as a means to demoralize the enemy (see terror bombing). ...

References

• U.S. Air Force: List of documents nd web links relating to the law of armed conflict in air and space operations
• International Review of the Red Cross no 323, p.347-363 The Law of Air Warfare (1998)
• Charles Rousseau, Le droit des conflits armés Editions Pedone, Paris, (1983)

Further reading

• Grayling, A. C. (2006). Among the Dead Cities. New York: Walker Publishing Company Inc.. ISBN 0-8027-1471-4.
• Gene Dannen International Law on the Bombing of Civilians
• The Air Force Law Review Volume 56, 2005 (PDF) See the Article by Jefferson D. Reynolds "Collateral Damage on the 21st century battlefield: Enemy exploitation of the law of armed conflict, and the struggle for a moral high ground".
• Sherwood Ross How the United States Reversed Its Policy on Bombing Civilians, The Humanist, Vol. 65, July-August 2005
• R.J. Rummel Was World War II American Urban Bombing Democide?

Anthony Clifford Grayling MA, DPhil (Oxon) FRSA (born 3 April 1949) is a British philosopher and author. ... Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is professor emeritus of political science at the University of Hawaii and alternative historian. ...

Footnotes

1. ^ Bomber Command and Ethics (PDF) page 13
2. ^ Churchill's redrafted letter on area bombing
3. ^ Area Bombing: Note by Chief of the Air Staff 5 April 1945 (Catalogue ref: CAB 120/303) Chief of Air Staff Charles Portal response to Churchill's letter on area bombing"
4. ^ Laws of War : Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907 available from the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School, entered into force: 26 January 1910.
5. ^ Laws of War: Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War (Hague IX); October 18, 1907, available from the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School,
6. ^ International Review of the Red Cross no 323 cites: Charles Rousseau, References p. 360. "the a nalogy between land and aerial bombardment".
7. ^ Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague II); July 29, 1899, available from the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School, entry into force 4 September 1900
8. '^ The Hague Rules of Air Warfare, 1922-12 to 1923-02, this convention was never adopted.
9. ^ Rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare, from the International Committee of the Red Cross's section on international humanitarian law verified 26 February 2005
10. ^ Laws of War : Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907 available from the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School, entered into force: 26 January 1910
11. ^ The Air Force Law Review Volume 56 2005 (PDF) Page 57/58
12. ^ ^a b Javier Guisández Gómez The Law of Air Warfare 30 June 1998 International Review of the Red Cross no 323, p.347-363
13. ^ Protection of Civilian Populations Against Bombing From the Air in Case of War, Unanimous resolution of the League of Nations Assembly, 30 September 1938, verified 26 February 2005
14. ^ Draft Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against New Engines of War. Amsterdam, 1938, verified 26 February 2005
15. ^ "Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 1 Charter of the International Military Tribunal", proceedings of the Nuremberg Trials, available from the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School, verified 26 February 2005.
16. ^ Judgement : The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, available from the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School, verified 26 February 2005.
17. ^ Wikisource:Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State I. Evaluation of the act of bombing according to international law: Paragraph 6
18. ^ Wikisource:Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State I. Evaluation of the act of bombing according to international law: Paragraph 7
19. ^ ^a b Wikisource:Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State I. Evaluation of the act of bombing according to international law: Paragraph 10
20. ^ Wikisource:Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State I. Evaluation of the act of bombing according to international law: Paragraph 9
21. ^ Wikisource:Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State I. Evaluation of the act of bombing according to international law: Paragraph 8
22. ^ John Bolton "The Risks and Weaknesses of the International Criminal Court from America's Perspective", US ambassador to the United Nations, Winter 2001
23. ^ ICJ: Legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons