Western philosophy Ancient philosophy
Name:	Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs
Birth:	384 BC
Death:	March 7, 322 BC
School/tradition:	Gave rise to Aristotelianism and the Peripatetic school
Main interests:	Ethics, Politics, Metaphysics, Science, Logic
Notable ideas:	The Golden mean, Reason, Passion
Influences:	Plato
Influenced:	Almost all of western philosophy and science afterward

Aristotle (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on diverse subjects, including physics, poetry, zoology, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, and biology. Aristotle, along with Plato and Socrates, is generally considered one of the most influential of ancient Greek philosophers. They transformed Presocratic Greek philosophy into the foundations of Western philosophy as we know it. The writings of Plato and Aristotle founded two of the most important schools of Ancient philosophy. This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see Pre-Socratic philosophy. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (600x800, 231 KB) Suject : Portrait of Aristoteles ; Origin : Imperial Roman copy (1st or 2nd century) of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos ; Material : Marble of the Penteli, region of Athens ; Location : Louvre museum, Paris, France, #MA 80 bis ; Author : Eric... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC - 380s BC - 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC Years: 389 BC 388 BC 387 BC 386 BC 385 BC - 384 BC - 383 BC 382 BC... March 7 is the 66th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (67th in leap years). ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 327 BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC 323 BC - 322 BC - 321 BC 320 BC 319... Peripatetic means wandering. The Peripatetics were a school of philosophy in ancient Greece. ... Ethics (from the Ancient Greek ethikos, meaning arising from habit) is a major branch of philosophy. ... Politics is a process by which decisions are made within groups. ... Plato and Aristotle, by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome). ... Science in the broadest sense refers to any system of knowledge attained by verifiable means. ... Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... In philosophy, especially that of Aristotle, the golden mean is the felicitous middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Western philosophy is a modern claim that there is a line of related philosophical thinking, beginning in ancient Greece (Greek philosophy) and the ancient Near East (the Abrahamic religions), that continues to this day. ... Science in the broadest sense refers to any system of knowledge attained by verifiable means. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC - 380s BC - 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC Years: 389 BC 388 BC 387 BC 386 BC 385 BC - 384 BC - 383 BC 382 BC... March 7 is the 66th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (67th in leap years). ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 327 BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC 323 BC - 322 BC - 321 BC 320 BC 319... The ancient Greek world circa 550 BC Ancient Greece is the period in Greek history which lasted for around one thousand years and ended with the rise of Christianity. ... Classical (or early) Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Alexander the Great (Greek: [1], Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC — June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history, conquering most of the known world before his death; he is frequently included in a... The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density. ... The Chinese poem Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by Emperor Gaozong (Song Dynasty) Poetry (from the Greek , poesis, making or creating) is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. ... Zoology is the biological discipline which involves the study of animals. ... Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... Rhetoric (from Greek ρήτωρ, rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language. ... Politics is a process by which decisions are made within groups. ... Ethics (from the Ancient Greek ethikos, meaning arising from habit) is a major branch of philosophy. ... Biology (from Greek βίος λόγος, see below) is the branch of science dealing with the study of life. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Socrates (Greek: Σωκράτης, invariably anglicized as , SÇ’cratÄ“s; 470–399 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher who is widely credited for laying the foundation for Western philosophy. ... Classical (or early) Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. ... Pre-Socratic philosophers are often very hard to pin down, and it is sometimes very difficult to determine the actual line of argument they used in supporting their particular views. ... Classical (or early) Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. ... Western philosophy is a modern claim that there is a line of related philosophical thinking, beginning in ancient Greece (Greek philosophy) and the ancient Near East (the Abrahamic religions), that continues to this day. ... This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see Pre-Socratic philosophy. ...

Although Aristotle wrote dialogues, only fragments of these have survived. The works that have survived are in treatise form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These are generally thought to be lecture notes or texts used by his students. Among the most important are Physics, Metaphysics (or Ontology), Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics. These works, although connected in many fundamental ways, differ significantly in both style and substance. A treatise is a formal, systematic written analysis of a certain subject, more lengthy than an essay. ... Aristotles Physics, frontispice of a 1837 edition Physics (or Physica, or Physicae Auscultationes meaning lessons) is a key text in the philosophy of Aristotle. ... Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the branch of philosophy with the same name. ... In philosophy, ontology (from the Greek , genitive : of being (part. ... Nicomachean Ethics (sometimes spelled Nichomachean), is a work by Aristotle on virtue and character and plays a prominent role in defining Aristotelian ethics. ... The Politics of Aristotle is the second half of a single treatise of which his Ethics is the first. ... I like to eat your grandmother for breakfast,lunch,brunch,dinner, and desert all at the same time. ... Aristotles Poetics aims to give an account of poetry. ...

Aristotle was a polymath. He not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, economics, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics, and zoology. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also dealt with education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works practically constitute an encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. Leonardo da Vinci is seen as an epitome of the Renaissance man or polymath. ... Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the Encyclopédie. ... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula. ... Face-to-face trading interactions among on the New York Stock Exchange trading floor In the social sciences, economics is the study of human choice behavior and how it effects the production, distribution, and consumption of scarce resources. ... Embryology is the branch of developmental biology that studies embryos and their development. ... The Blue Marble: The famous photo of the Earth taken en route to the Moon by Apollo 17s Harrison Schmitt on December 7, 1972. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density. ... Zoology is the biological discipline which involves the study of animals. ... Kittens are often considered quite cute. ... Ethics (from the Ancient Greek ethikos, meaning arising from habit) is a major branch of philosophy. ... Plato and Aristotle, by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome). ... Politics is a process by which decisions are made within groups. ... Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of the human mind, brain, and behavior. ... Rhetoric (from Greek ρήτωρ, rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language. ... Theology (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογος, logos, word or reason) means reasoned discourse concerning religion, spirituality and God. ... Old book bindings at the Merton College library. ... The Chinese poem Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by Emperor Gaozong (Song Dynasty) Poetry (from the Greek , poesis, making or creating) is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. ... Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902 An encyclopedia, encyclopaedia or (traditionally) encyclopædia,[1] is a comprehensive written compendium that contains information on all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. ...

Biography

Early life and studies at the Academy

A bust of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the West^{[citation needed]}.

Aristotle was born in Stagira, on the peninsula of Chalcidice in 384 BC. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King Amyntas III of Macedon. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of the Macedons. He did not go to school, instead he was taught by his father. His father's medical knowledge was perhaps the inspiration for Aristotle's later interest in natural phenomena. Download high resolution version (1384x2044, 193 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1384x2044, 193 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Bust of Richard Bently by Roubiliac A bust is a sculpture depicting a persons chest, shoulders, and head, usually supported by a stand. ... See Occident (movement) for the French political movement. ... Stageira (Greek: Στάγειρα) was an ancient Greek city on the Chalcidice peninsula and is chiefly known for being the birthplace of Aristotle. ... Chalkidikí or Chalcidice (in Greek: Χαλκιδική, alternative romanizations Khalkidhikí) is one of the fifty-one prefectures of Greece. ... Amyntas III, stater Amyntas III (or II), son of Arrhidaeus, grandfather of Alexander the Great, was king of Macedon from 393 (or 389) to 369 BC. He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of Archelaus II, the patron of art and literature. ...

Little is known about his mother, Phaestis, who died early in Aristotle's life. His father Nicomachus died, when Aristotle was ten, making him an orphan. Then he was placed under the guardianship of his uncle, Proxenus of Atarneus, who also took over his education. He gave Aristotle significant instruction in Greek, rhetoric, and poetry (O'Connor et al., 2004). Aristotle went to Athens at the age of 18, and attended Plato's school for young Greek aristocracy (the Academy). Aristotle quickly became Plato's favorite student. Orphans, by Thomas Kennington An orphan (from the Greek ορφανός) is a person (or animal), who has lost one or both parents, often through death. ... Rhetoric (from Greek ρήτωρ, rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language. ... The Chinese poem Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by Emperor Gaozong (Song Dynasty) Poetry (from the Greek , poesis, making or creating) is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. ... Athens (Greek: Αθήνα, Athína IPA: ) is the capital and largest city of Greece and the birthplace of democracy. ... Raphaels portrait of Plato, a detail of The School of Athens fresco An an institution for the study of (usually) higher learning. ...

From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained at the Academy. The relationship between Plato and Aristotle has formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued associations with Xenocrates and other Platonists, and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinions between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are allegedly traceable to the Epicureans, although some doubt remains of this charge. If such legends were circulated widely by patristic writers such as Justin Martyr and Gregory Nazianzen, the reason may rest in the exaggerated esteem which early Christian heretics had for Aristotle. Xenocrates of Chalcedon (396 - 314 BC) was a Greek philosopher and scholarch or rector of the Academy from 339 to 314 BC. Removing to Athens in early youth, he became the pupil of the Socratic Aeschines, but presently joined himself to Plato, whom he attended to Sicily in 361. ... Platonic idealism is the theory that the substantive reality around us is only a reflection of a higher truth. ... Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c340-c270 BC), founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. ... The Church Fathers or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. ... Justin Martyr (Justin the Martyr, also known as Justin of Caesarea) (100 – 165) was an early Christian apologist. ... Saint Gregory Nazianzus (AD 329 - January 25, 389), also known as Saint Gregory the Theologian, was a 4th century Christian bishop of Constantinople. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on Jesus of Nazareth, and on his life and teachings as presented in the New Testament. ... Heresy, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is a theological or religious opinion or doctrine maintained in opposition, or held to be contrary, to the Catholic or Orthodox doctrine of the Christian Church, or, by extension, to that of any church, creed, or religious system, considered as orthodox. ...

It is not exactly clear when in his life, but according to Clearchus of Soli in his work "De Somno" (apud: Josephus, Contra Apionem, I, 176-183:), Aristotle met a Jew in Asia Minor and regarded him very favorable, noting that there is something to learn from him. Clearchus of Soli quotes Aristoteles as: "'Well', said Aristotle, [...] 'the man was a Jew of Coele-Syria. These people are descended from the Indian philosophers. The philosophers, they say, are in India called Calani, in Syria by the territorial name of Jews; for the district wich they inhabit is known as Judea. Their city has a remarkably odd name: they call it Hierusaleme. (180) Now this man, who entertained by a large circle of friends and was on his way from the interior to the coast, not only spoke Greek but had the soul of a Greek. (181) During my stay in Asia, he visited the same places as I did, and came to converse with me and some other scholars, to test our learning. But as one who had been intimate with many cultivated persons, it was rather he who imparted to us something of his own." Flavius Josephus writes: "...he [Aristoteles] went on to speak of the great and astonishing endurance and sobriety displayed by this Jew in his manner of life." (trans. H. St. J. Tackery, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge (Mass.)-London) Clearchus of Soli (), one of Aris­totles pupils, was the author of a number of works, none of which are extant. ... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to... Josephus, also known as Flavius Josephus (c. ...

Aristotle as philosopher and tutor

After the death of Plato (347 BC), Aristotle was considered for the position of head of the Academy, but this was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of Hermias, ruler of Atarneus in Asia Minor. He married Pythias, the niece of Hermias, and they had a daughter. They called her Pythias after her mother. In 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, and Aristotle went with his family to Mytilene. It is also reported that he stopped on Lesbos and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor of Alexander the Great, who was then 12. Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to... This city is not ot be confused with a village in the island of Samos named Mytilinii Mytilene (Μυτιλήνη in Greek) is the capital city of Lesbos, a Greek island in the Aegean Sea. ... The Isle of Lesbos shown just off the coast of Turkey, northwest of Izmir Lesbos (Greek – Λέσβος - Lésvos see also List of traditional Greek place names; Turkish: Midilli Adası) is a Greek island located in the northeastern Aegean Sea; its inhabitants are called Lesvioi. ... Philip II of Macedon: victory medal (niketerion) struck in Tarsus, 2nd c. ... Alexander the Great (Greek: [1], Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC — June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history, conquering most of the known world before his death; he is frequently included in a...

Plutarch wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although Bertrand Russell disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation. Plutarch Mestrius Plutarchus (c. ... Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, and mathematician, working mostly in the 20th century. ...

It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example Hephaestion and Harpalus. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost. The Stone Lion of Hamedan is said to have been erected by Alexander The Great, upon the death of Hephaestion. ... Harpalus was an aristocrat of Macedon in the 4th century BC. He was a student of Aristotle and a close friend of Alexander the Great since childhood. ...

According to sources such as Plutarch and Diogenes, Philip burned down Aristotle's hometown of Stageira during the 340s BC; Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead. Plutarch Mestrius Plutarchus (c. ... Diogenes (Διογένης) is a Greek name shared by several important historical figures: Diogenes of Sinope ( 412- 323 BC), better known as Diogenes the Cynic or simply Diogenes Diogenes Apolloniates (c:a 460 BC), philosopher Diogenes of Seleukia (c:a 150 BC) Diogenes Laertius... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC - 340s BC - 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC Years: 349 BC 348 BC 347 BC 346 BC 345 BC 344 BC 343 BC 342 BC...

Founder and master of the Lyceum

In about 335 BC, Alexander departed on his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as Aulus Gellius says, have conducted a school of rhetoric during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceios, from which his school has come to be known as the Lyceum. (It was also called the Peripatetic School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking around -- peripateo -- the shaded walks -- peripatoi -- surrounding the gymnasium). Aulus Gellius (c. ... Rhetoric (from Greek ρήτωρ, rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language. ... The gymnasium of the Greeks originally functioned as the school where competitors in the public games received their training, and was so named from the circumstance that these competitors exercised naked (gymnos). ... For other uses, see Apollo (disambiguation). ... A lyceum can be an educational institution (often a school of secondary education in Europe), or a public hall used for cultural events like concerts. ... Peripatetic means wandering. The Peripatetics were a school of philosophy in ancient Greece. ...

During the thirteen years (335 BC–322 BC) which he spent as head of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote Dialogues in which his doctrines were expounded in popular language. He also composed the surviving treatises, in which the exposition is more didactic and the language more technical than in the Dialogues. These writings succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. Pliny the Elder claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges; Aristotle's zoological works make this claim believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and Strabo asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library. This article belongs in one or more categories. ... The Didactic is facts based as opposed to the Dialectic which is feelings based. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19c portrait. ... the Greek georgapher Strabo, in a 16th‑century engraving. ...

During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded in Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He took up residence at his country house at Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died the following year (322 BC). His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to hemlock poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea "because he could not explain the tides," are without historical foundation. Callisthenes, or Kallisthenes, ( in Greek) of Olynthus (c. ... The Lamian war (323 BC - 322 BC) was a war in Greece between Athens and her allies in Central and Northern Greece and Macedonia. ... Impiety is a lack of proper concern for the obligations owed to cult in its proper sense. ... Anaxagoras Anaxagoras (Greek: Αναξαγόρας, c. ... Socrates (Greek: Σωκράτης, invariably anglicized as , Sǒcratēs; 470–399 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher who is widely credited for laying the foundation for Western philosophy. ... Chalcis or Chalkida, Halkida, Halkis or Chalkis (Greek, Modern: Χαλκίδα, Ancient/Katharevousa: -is), the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, situated on the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point. ... Euboea or Negropont (Modern Greek: Εύβοια Evia, Ancient Greek Εúβοια Eúboia; see also List of traditional Greek place names), is the largest island of the Greek archipelago. ... Conium is a genus of two species of perennial herbaceous flowering plants in the family Apiaceae, native to Europe and the Mediterranean region (), and to southern Africa (). By far the most familiar species is Conium maculatum (Hemlock or Poison Hemlock), the most common of several species of hemlock noted for... The tide is the cyclic rising and falling of Earths ocean surface caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth. ...

Aristotle's legacy, besides its impact on Western thought, also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the Middle Ages. Muslim thinkers such as Avicenna, Al-Farabi, and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi^[1] were a few of the major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the Golden Age of Islam. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... The works of Avicenna, the greatest of the medieval Persian physicians, were long used in European medical education. ... Al Farabi (870-950) was born of a Turkish family and educated by a Christian physician in Baghdad, and was himself later considered a teacher on par with Aristotle. ... Architecture is one of several fields that blossomed during the Golden Age of Islam. ...

Methodology

Aristotle defines his philosophy in terms of essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual". Plato had defined it as the "science of the idea", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of phenomena. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the universal; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in particular things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from a priori principles. Aristotles theory of universals is one of the classic solutions to the problem of universals. ... In philosophy, essence is the attribute (or set of attributes) that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is, and that it has necessary, in contrast with accident, properties that the object or substance has contingently and without which the substance could have existed. ... An idea (Greek: ιδέα) is a specific thought which arises in the mind. ... A phenomenon (plural: phenomena) is an observable event, especially something special (literally something that can be seen from the Greek word phainomenon = observable). ... In philosophy, a proposition is said to have universality if it can be conceived as being true in all possible contexts without creating a contradiction. ... In metaphysics, particulars are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract, not multiply instantiated. ... Prototypes or prototypical instances combine the most representative attributes of a category. ... Exemplar, in the sense developed by philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn, is a well known usage of a scientific theory. ... Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed to support the conclusion but do not ensure it. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The terms A priori and a posteriori are used in philosophy to distinguish between two different types of propositional knowledge. ...

In Aristotle's terminology, the term natural philosophy corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: motion, light, and the laws of physics. Many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science, as studied through the scientific method. In modern times the term philosophy has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics, distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences. In contrast, in Aristotle's time and use, philosophy was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry. Motion involves change in position, such as this perspective of rapidly leaving Yongsan Station In physics, motion means a change in the position of a body relative to a reference point, as measured by a particular observer in a particular frame of reference. ... Prism splitting light Light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength that is visible to the eye (visible light) or, in a technical or scientific context, electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength. ... A physical law or a law of nature is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also called "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term scientific method. "All science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical". By practical science he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical science he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. Reasoning is the act of using reason to derive a conclusion from certain premises. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... For other meanings of mathematics or math, see mathematics (disambiguation). ...

Metaphysics, philosophy in the strictest sense, he defines as "the knowledge of immaterial being", and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction". If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, Analytic, be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy. This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... Analytic may refer to Analytic proposition or analytic philosophy, in philosophy Analytic geometry, analytic function, analytic continuation, analytic set in mathematics. ... Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... Plato and Aristotle, by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome). ... The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density. ... For other meanings of mathematics or math, see mathematics (disambiguation). ...

Aristotle's epistemology

Logic

Main article: Aristotelian logic

Aristotle's conception of logic was the dominant form of logic up until the advances in mathematical logic in the 19th century. Kant himself thought that Aristotle had done everything possible in terms of logic. Aristotelian logic, also known as syllogistic logic, is the particular type of logic created by Aristotle, primarily in his works Prior Analytics and De Interpretatione. ... The term non-Aristotelian logic, sometimes shortened to null-A, is a term popularised by A. E. van Vogt and deriving from Alfred Korzybskis General Semantics. ... Mathematical logic is a discipline within mathematics, studying formal systems in relation to the way they encode intuitive concepts of proof and computation as part of the foundations of mathematics. ...

History

Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'" (Bocheński, 1951). However, Plato reports that syntax was thought of before him, by Prodikos of Keos, who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics; the earlier philosophers used concepts like reductio ad absurdum as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for deduction, he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his dialectic, which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Bocheński, 1951). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from premises, so he focused on having good premises so that the conclusion would follow. Later on, Plato realized that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method (Rose, 1968). For other uses, see Syntax (disambiguation). ... Broadly speaking, a dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική) is an exchange of propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses) resulting in a disagreement. ... It has been suggested that Incoherency argument be merged into this article or section. ... There are several meanings for the word deduction: Natural deduction Deductive reasoning Deductions in terms of taxation, such as Itemized deductions Standard deduction See also: Logic Venn diagram Inductive reasoning Both statistics and the scientific method rely on both induction and deduction. ... In classical philosophy, dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική) is an exchange of propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses) resulting in a synthesis of the opposing assertions, or at least a qualitative transformation in the direction of the dialogue. ... Look up Premise in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Premise (from the Latin praemisus, meaning placed in front) can refer to: A premise (also premiss in British usage) is a statement presumed true within the context of a discourse, especially of a logical argument. ... A conclusion can have various specific meanings depending on the context. ...

Analytics and the Organon

Main article: Organon

What we today call Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century CE: This article is about Aristotles logical works. ...

1. Categories
2. On Interpretation
3. Prior Analytics
4. Posterior Analytics
5. Topics
6. On Sophistical Refutations

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialetics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book of Metaphysics. (Bocheński, 1951).

Modal logic

Aristotle is also the creator of syllogisms with modalities (modal logic). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of truth. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968). A syllogism (Greek: συλλογισμός — conclusion, inference), more correctly a categorical syllogism, is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others (the premises). ... A modal logic is any logic for handling modalities: concepts like possibility, impossibility, and necessity. ... Common dictionary definitions of truth mention some form of accord with fact or reality. ...

Science

Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez

In the period between his two stints in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is now most renowned. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle’s Metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to Mathematics. He did, however, perform original research in the natural sciences, including: botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, and meteorology, geometry and several other sciences. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2024x2604, 479 KB) Description: Title: de: Aristoteles Technique: de: Öl auf Leinwand Dimensions: de: 163 × 126 cm Country of origin: de: Italien Current location (city): de: Venedig Current location (gallery): de: Galleria dellAccademia Other notes: Source: The Yorck Project: DVD... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2024x2604, 479 KB) Description: Title: de: Aristoteles Technique: de: Öl auf Leinwand Dimensions: de: 163 × 126 cm Country of origin: de: Italien Current location (city): de: Venedig Current location (gallery): de: Galleria dellAccademia Other notes: Source: The Yorck Project: DVD...

Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, not quantitative. Beginning in the sixteenth century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was found to be hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely down to lacking concepts like mass, velocity, force, and temperature. He had a notion of what speed and temperature was, but no quantative understanding of them. This was partly due to not having basic experimental apparatus, like a clock or thermometer.

His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, but there are some curious errors. For example, in his History of Animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Perhaps he was too busy observing the more interesting aspects of nature to spend a few hours counting teeth. In a similar vein, Galileo showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that the heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. History of Animals (or Historia Animalium, or On the History of Animals) is a text by Aristotle. ...

Some have alleged that Aristotle regularly started from theory and twisted facts to fit it. For instance he observed living things on earth, in the oceans, and in the air. From this he concluded there must be fire beings living on the moon. This is obviously absurd. In his defence, there are very few passages like this. In many passages Aristotle suggest that facts must be collected before an axiomatized deductive science can be built. But Aristotle never had all the facts, and thought he had facts when he had only falsehoods.

In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched reason. Today's scientific method assumes that thinking without sufficient facts often leads people astray, and one must be much stricter than Aristotle was in comparing one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one discern if one's hypothesis corresponds to reality. Reason is a term used in philosophy and other human sciences to refer to the faculty of the human mind that creates and operates with abstract concepts. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ...

Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots, the largest being his inability to see the application of mathematics to physics. Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them. He also posited a flawed cosmology that we may discern in selections of the Metaphysics. His cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the 1500s. From the 3rd century to the 1500s, the dominant view held that the Earth was the centre of the universe; of course, we now know that the Earth is not even the centre of our own solar system.

Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead you into forgetting the immense advances that he made in the many fields of science. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Also, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge. This made the study of physics, and all other sciences, respectable. This observation, though, goes beyond physics and is really the subject matter of metaphysics.

Aristotle's metaphysics

Causality

The Material Cause is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts, constituents, substratum or materials. This reduces the explanation of causes to the parts (factors, elements, constituents, ingredients) forming the whole (system, structure, compound, complex, composite, or combination) (the part-whole causation). The Material Cause, that out of which the statue is made, is the marble or bronze. ...

The Formal Cause tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis, or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (macrostructure) is the cause of its parts (the whole-part causation). The Formal Cause, that according to which the statue is made, is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. ...

The Efficient Cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. Efficient cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. ...

The Final Cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation, or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, all that gives purpose to behavior. Purpose is deliberately thought-through goal-directedness. ...

Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. [Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect.] Also, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects, its presence and absence may result in different outcomes.

Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.

All further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, like as final > efficient> material > formal (Thomas Aquinas), or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores). Saint Thomas Aquinas [Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino] (c. ...

Chance and spontaneity

Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.

However, chance can only apply to human beings, it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance" (Physics, 2.6).

Substance, Potentiality and Actuality

Aristotle examines the concept of substance (ousia) in his Metaphysics, Book VII and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. As he proceeds to the book VIII, he concludes that the matter of the substance is the substratum or the stuff of which is composed e.g. the matter of the house are the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house. While the form of the substance, is the actual house, namely ‘covering for bodies and chattels’ or any other differentia. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form (Metaphysics VIII, 1043a 10-30). Look up substance in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Plato and Aristotle, by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome). ... In linguistics, a substratum (lat. ...

With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b-320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from 1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity 2. locomotion, which change in space and 3. alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Aristotles Physics, frontispice of a 1837 edition Physics (or Physica, or Physicae Auscultationes meaning lessons) is a key text in the philosophy of Aristotle. ... On Generation and Corruption (or De Generatione et Corruptione) is a text by Aristotle. ... Modal logic, or (less commonly) intensional logic is the branch of logic that deals with sentences that are qualified by modalities such as can, could, might, may, must, possibly, and necessarily, and others. ...

Referring to potentiality, is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if it is not prevented from something else. For example, a seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), as well as can be either innate or come by practice or learning. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate - being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise - acting).

Referring now to actuality, this is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that actuality is when the seed of the plant becomes a plant. Modal logic, or (less commonly) intensional logic is the branch of logic that deals with sentences that are qualified by modalities such as can, could, might, may, must, possibly, and necessarily, and others. ...

“ For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.” (Aristotle, Metaphysics IX 1050a 5-10).

In conclusion, the matter of the house is its potentiality and the form is its actuality. The Formal Cause (aitia) then of that change from potential to actual house, is the reason (logos) of the house builder and the Final Cause is the end, namely the house itself. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. The Formal Cause, that according to which the statue is made, is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. ... Reason is a term used in philosophy and other human sciences to refer to the faculty of the human mind that creates and operates with abstract concepts. ... Purpose is deliberately thought-through goal-directedness. ...

With this definition of the particular substance (matter and form) Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings; e.g., what is that makes the man one? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing. (Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1045a-b). A definition delimits or describes the meaning of a concept or term by stating the essential properties of the entities or objects denoted by that concept or term. ... In metaphysics, particulars are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract, not multiply instantiated. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ...

The five elements

Main article: Five Elements

• Fire, which is hot and dry.
• Earth, which is cold and dry.
• Air, which is hot and wet.
• Water, which is cold and wet.
• Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets).

Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place; the earth at the centre of the universe, then water, then air, then fire. When they are out of their natural place they have natural motion, requiring no external cause, which is towards that place; so bodies sink in water, air bubbles up, rain falls, flame rises in air. The heavenly element has perpetual circular motion. Chinese Wood (木) | Fire (火) | Earth (土) | Metal (金) | Water (水) Hinduism The Panchamahabhuta (five great elements) Prithvi/Bhumi (Earth) Ap/Jala (Water) Agni/Tejas (Fire) Vayu/Pavan (Air/Wind) Akasha (Aether) The five elements usually refer to wood, fire, earth, metal, and water in East Asian philosophy. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Chinese Wood (木) | Fire (火) | Earth (土) | Metal (金) | Water (水) Hinduism and Buddhism The Panchamahabhuta or The Panchatattva (The Five Great Elements) Vayu/Pavan (Air/Wind) Agni/Tejas (Fire) Akasha (Aether) Prithvi/Bhumi (Earth) Ap/Jala (Water) Water is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. ... Chinese Wood (木) | Fire (火) | Earth (土) | Metal (金) | Water (水) Hinduism and Buddhism The Pancha Mahabhuta (The Five Great Elements) Vayu/Pavan (Air/Wind) Agni/Tejas (Fire) Akasha (Aether) Prithvi/Bhumi (Earth) Ap/Jala (Water) Aether (also spelled ether) is a concept used in ancient and medieval science as a substance. ...

Aristotle's ethics

Main article: Aristotelian ethics

Although Aristotle wrote several works on ethics, the major one was the Nicomachean Ethics, which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses virtues. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the Lyceum and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, Nicomachus. Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. ... Ethics (from the Ancient Greek ethikos, meaning arising from habit) is a major branch of philosophy. ... Nicomachean Ethics (sometimes spelled Nichomachean), is a work by Aristotle on virtue and character and plays a prominent role in defining Aristotelian ethics. ... Virtue (Latin virtus; Greek ) is moral excellence of a man or a woman. ... A lyceum can be an educational institution (often a school of secondary education in Europe), or a public hall used for cultural events like concerts. ... Nicomachus (c. ...

Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge, like metaphysics and epistemology, but general knowledge. Also, as it is a practical discipline rather than a theoretical one; he thought that in order to become "good", one could not simply study what virtue is; one must actually do virtuous deeds. In order to do this, Aristotle had first to establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the Highest Good. Plato and Aristotle, by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome). ... Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and scope of knowledge. ... The word theory has a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. ...

Aristotle contended that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man". But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or Nous. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious.

Aristotle believed that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between excess and deficiency. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances. In an insurance policy, the deductible or excess is the portion of any claim that is not covered by the insurance provider. ... In mathematics, a deficient number or defective number is a number n for which &#963;(n) < 2n. ...

In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle often focused on finding the mean between two extremes of any particular subject; whether it be justice, courage, wealth and so forth. For example; too much courage can be a bad trait because it leads to ignorant choices, and too little courage would mean one is prone to cowardice. Aristotle says that finding this middle ground is essential to reaching eudemonia, the ultimate form of godlike consciousness. This middle ground is often referred to as The Golden Mean. Aristotle also wrote about his thoughts on the concept of justice in the Nicomachean Ethics. In these chapters, Aristotle defined justice in two parts, general justice and particular justice. General justice is Aristotle’s form of universal justice that can only exist in a perfect society. Particular justice is where punishment is given out for a particular crime or act of injustice. This is where Aristotle says an educated judge is needed to apply just decisions regarding any particular case. This is where we get the concept of the scales of justice, the blindfolded judge symbolizing blind justice, balancing the scales, weighing all the evidence and deliberating each particular case individually. Homonymy is an important theme in Aristotle’s justice because one form of justice can apply to one, while another would be best suited for a different person/case. Aristotle says that developing good habits can make a good human being and that practicing the use of The golden mean when applicable to virtues will allow a human being to live a healthy, happy life.

Aristotle's critics

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth.

Aristotle has been criticized on several grounds. Download high resolution version (804x1052, 186 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (804x1052, 186 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... The School of Athens is one of the most famous paintings by the Italian renaissance artist Raphael. ... Self-portrait by Raphael. ...

• His analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist.
• At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, Plato, appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments.
• Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful empirical investigation, but often drifted into abstract logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence: for example, his assertion that objects of different mass fall at different speeds under gravity, which was later refuted by John Philoponus (credit is often given to Galileo, even though Philoponus lived centuries earlier).
• In the Middle Ages, roughly from the 12th century to the 15th century, the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established dogma. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and systematic so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the skeptical methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato.
• Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time.

Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Empirical is an adjective often used in conjunction with science, both the natural and social sciences, which means an observation or experiment based upon experience that is capable of being verified or disproved. ... Abstraction is the process of reducing the information content of a concept, typically in order to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. ... Mass is a property of a physical object that quantifies the amount of matter and energy it is equivalent to. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Joannes Philoponus. ... Galileo can refer to: Galileo Galilei, astronomer, philosopher, and physicist (1564 - 1642) the Galileo spacecraft, a NASA space probe that visited Jupiter and its moons the Galileo positioning system Life of Galileo, a play by Bertolt Brecht Galileo (1975) - screen adaptation of the play Life of Galileo by Bertolt Brecht... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas) is belief or doctrine held by a religion, ideology or any kind of organization to be authoritative and not to be disputed or doubted. ... Systematic was a hard rock band from California, USA. The band was one of the first signings to Metallica drummer Lars Ulrichs record label, The Music Company (via Elektra Records). ... Skepticism (Commonwealth spelling: Scepticism) can mean: Philosophical skepticism - a philosophical position in which people choose to critically examine whether the knowledge and perceptions that they have are actually true, and whether or not one can ever be said to have absolutely true knowledge; or Scientific skepticism - a scientific, or practical... Scholastic redirects here. ...

The loss of his works

Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes of his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the Nicomachean Ethics is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works. Cicero at about age 60, from an ancient marble bust Marcus Tullius Cicero January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator, statesman, political theorist, and philosopher of Ancient Rome. ... Nicomachean Ethics (sometimes spelled Nichomachean), is a work by Aristotle on virtue and character and plays a prominent role in defining Aristotelian ethics. ...

Aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, only his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in his "Parallel Lives, Sulla": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to Theophrastus, from Theophrastus to Neleus of Scepsis, from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to Apellicon of Teos. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Appellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC from the grammarian Tyrranion of Amisus and then by philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes. the Greek georgapher Strabo, in a 16th‑century engraving. ... Plutarch Mestrius Plutarchus (c. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Plutarch in Greek Plutarchs Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans is a series of biographies of famous men, arranged in tandem to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings. ... Statue of Theophrastus Theophrastus, a native of Eressos in Lesbos born c. ... Apellicon, a wealthy native of Teos, afterwards an Athenian citizen, was a famous book collector of the 1st century BCE. He not only spent large sums in the acquisition of his library, but stole original documents from the archives of Athens and other cities of Greece. ... Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·P·N·SVLLA·FELIX)[1] ( 138 BC–78 BC) Roman general and dictator, was usually known simply as Sulla. ... Nickname: The Eternal City Location within Province of Rome in the Region of Latium Coordinates: Region Latium Province Province of Rome Mayor of Rome Walter Veltroni Area    - City 1,285 km²  (496. ... Andronicus of Rhodes (c. ...

Bibliography

Note: Bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available. Aristotelis Opera Omnia from year 1837. ...

Major works

The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the Corpus Aristotelicum. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the Athenaion Politeia or the fragments of other politeia are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school" and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such On Colours may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by Nicolaus of Damascus. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval palmistries, astrological and magical texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk. The Corpus Aristotelicum refers to the traditional ordering and categorization of the works of Aristotle, dating back to the 2nd century. ... Statue of Theophrastus Theophrastus, a native of Eressos in Lesbos born c. ... Straton may refer to: Straton of Sardis (Greek poet and anthologist of the homoerotic The Boyish Muse) Stratons Tower (place in Israel) Straton of Lampsacus (Greek physicist) Isabella Straton (1838–1918; English mountaineer) This is a disambiguation page — a list of pages that otherwise might share the same title. ... Nicolaus of Damascus (Nikolāos Damaskēnos) was a Greek historical and philosophical writer who lived in the Augustan Age. ... An astrological chart (or horoscope) _ Y2K Chart &#8212; This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251) Astrology (from Greek: &#945;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#955;&#959... Look up Magic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary The term magic is a Persian loanword into English and may refer to: Magic (paranormal) deals with the manipulation of what the practitioner believes to be genuine paranormal phenomena. ...

Logical writings

• Organon (collected works on logic):
  • (1a) Categories (or Categoriae)
  • (16a) On Interpretation (or De Interpretatione)
  • (24a) Prior Analytics (or Analytica Priora)
  • (71a) Posterior Analytics (or Analytica Posteriora)
  • (100b) Topics (or Topica)
  • (164a) On Sophistical Refutations (or De Sophisticis Elenchis)

This article is about Aristotles logical works. ... Categories (or Categoriae) is a text from Aristotles Organon that enumerates all the possible kinds of thing which can be the subject or the predicate of a proposition. ... De Interpretatione or Hermeneutics (Peri Hermeneias) is a work of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, mainly on the philosophy of language. ... Prior Analytics is Aristotles work on deductive reasoning, part of his Organon, the organ of logical and scientific methods. ... Posterior Analytics (or Analytica Posteriora) is a text by Aristotle. ... Topics (or Topica) is a text by Aristotle. ... On Sophistical Refutations (or De Sophisticis Elenchis) is a text by Aristotle. ...

Physical and scientific writings

• (184a) Physics (or Physica)
• (268a) On the Heavens (or De Caelo)
• (314a) On Generation and Corruption (or De Generatione et Corruptione)
• (338a) Meteorology (or Meteorologica)
• (391a) On the Cosmos (or De Mundo, or On the Universe) *
• (402a) On the Soul (or De Anima)
• (436a) Little Physical Treatises (or Parva Naturalia):
  • On Sense and the Sensible (or De Sensu et Sensibilibus)
  • On Memory and Reminiscence (or De Memoria et Reminiscentia)
  • On Sleep and Sleeplessness (or De Somno et Vigilia)
  • On Dreams (or De Insomniis) *
  • On Prophesying by Dreams (or De Divinatione per Somnum)
  • On Longevity and Shortness of Life (or De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae)
  • On Youth and Old Age (On Life and Death) (or De Juventute et Senectute, De Vita et Morte)
  • On Breathing (or De Respiratione)
• (481a) On Breath (or De Spiritu) *
• (486a) History of Animals (or Historia Animalium, or On the History of Animals, or Description of Animals)
• (639a) On the Parts of Animals (or De Partibus Animalium)
• (698a) On the Gait of Animals (or De Motu Animalium, or On the Movement of Animals)
• (704a) On the Progression of Animals (or De Incessu Animalium)
• (715a) On the Generation of Animals (or De Generatione Animalium)
• (791a) On Colours (or De Coloribus) *
• (800a) De audibilibus
• (805a) Physiognomics (or Physiognomonica) *
• On Plants (or De Plantis) *
• (830a) On Marvellous Things Heard (or Mirabilibus Auscultationibus, or On Things Heard) *
• (847a) Mechanical Problems (or Mechanica) *
• (859a) Problems (or Problemata) *
• (968a) On Indivisible Lines (or De Lineis Insecabilibus) *
• (973a) Situations and Names of Winds (or Ventorum Situs) *
• (974a) On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias (or MXG) * The section On Xenophanes starts at 977a13, the section On Gorgias starts at 979a11.

Aristotles Physics, frontispice of a 1837 edition Physics (or Physica, or Physicae Auscultationes meaning lessons) is a key text in the philosophy of Aristotle. ... On the Heavens (or De Caelo) is Aristotles chief cosmological treatise: it contains his astronomical theory. ... On Generation and Corruption (or De Generatione et Corruptione) is a text by Aristotle. ... Meteorology (or Meteorologica) is a text by Aristotle which contains his theories about the earth sciences. ... On the Cosmos or De mundo is a spurous work by Aristotle (Bekker numbers 391-401). ... On the Soul (or De Anima) is a writing by Aristotle, outlining his philosophical views on the nature of living things. ... On Sense and the Sensible (or On sense and what is sensed, or On sense perception, or De Sensu et Sensibilibus) is a text by Aristotle, written about 350 B.C.E. The phrase was alluded to by Jane Austen in her novel Sense and Sensibility. ... On Memory and Reminiscence (or De Memoria et Reminiscentia) is a text by Aristotle. ... On Sleep and Sleeplessness (or De Somno et Vigilia) is a text by Aristotle. ... On Dreams (or De Insomniis) is a text by Aristotle. ... On Prophesying by Dreams (or De Divinatione per Somnum) is a text by Aristotle. ... On Longevity and Shortness of Life (or De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae) is a text by Aristotle. ... History of Animals (or Historia Animalium, or On the History of Animals) is a text by Aristotle. ... On the Parts of Animals (or De Partibus Animalium) is a text by Aristotle. ... On the Gait of Animals (or De Motu Animalium, or On the Progression of Animals or On the Movement of Animals) is a text by Aristotle. ... On the Generation of Animals (or De Generatione Animalium) is a text by Aristotle. ... Physiognomy (Gk. ... Mechanical Problems (or Mechanica) is a text by Aristotle. ...

Metaphysical writings

• (980a) Metaphysics (or Metaphysica)

Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the branch of philosophy with the same name. ...

Ethical writings

• (1094a) Nicomachean Ethics (or Ethica Nicomachea, or The Ethics)
• (1181a) Great Ethics (or Magna Moralia) *
• (1214a) Eudemian Ethics (or Ethica Eudemia)
• (1249a) Virtues and Vices (or De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus, Libellus de virtutibus) *
• (1252a) Politics (or Politica)
• (1343a) Economics (or Oeconomica)

Nicomachean Ethics (sometimes spelled Nichomachean), is a work by Aristotle on virtue and character and plays a prominent role in defining Aristotelian ethics. ... The Magnus Moralia (or Great Ethics or Magna Moralia) is a text considered by some to be by Aristotle. ... Eudemian ethics focuses ethics based on enjoyment of happiness as the ultimate End. ... The Politics of Aristotle is the second half of a single treatise of which his Ethics is the first. ...

Aesthetic writings

• (1354a) Rhetoric (or Ars Rhetorica, or The Art of Rhetoric or Treatise on Rhetoric)
• Rhetoric to Alexander (or Rhetorica ad Alexandrum) *
• (1447a) Poetics (or Ars Poetica)

Aristotles Rhetoric (or Ars Rhetorica, or The Art of Rhetoric or Treatise on Rhetoric) places the discipline of public speaking in the context of all other intellectual pursuits at the time. ... Aristotles Poetics aims to give an account of poetry. ...

A work outside the Corpus Aristotelicum

• The Constitution of the Athenians (or Athenaion Politeia, or The Athenian Constitution)

The Constitution of the Athenians or of Athens (or Athenaion Politeia, or The Athenians) is the name of either of two texts from Classical antiquity, one probably by Aristotle, the other attributed to Xenophon, but not by him. ...

Specific editions

• Princeton University Press: The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by Jonathan Barnes ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works)
• Oxford University Press: Clarendon Aristotle Series. Scholarly edition
• Harvard University Press: Loeb Classical Library (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages)
• Oxford Classical Texts (hardbound; Greek only)

Princeton University is a coeducational private university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ... Jonathan Barnes (born 1942) is a British philosopher, translator and historian of ancient philosophy. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ... Harvard redirects here. ... The Loeb Classical Library is a series of books, today published by the Harvard University Press, which present important works of ancient Greek and Latin Literature in a way designed to make the text accessible to the broadest possible audience, by presenting the original Greek or Latin text on each... Oxford Classical Texts, or Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis, is a series of books published by Oxford University Press. ...

Named after Aristotle

• Aristoteles, a crater on the Moon.
• The Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
• Aristotelous Square

Aristoteles == Headline text Headline text Headline text Headline text Headline text is a lunar impact crater that lies near the southern edge of the Mare Frigoris, and to the east of the Montes Alpes mountain range. ... Bulk composition of the Moons mantle and crust estimated, weight percent Oxygen 42. ... The Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, named after the philosopher Aristotle, is the largest university of Greece. ... Aristotelous Square (Greek Οδος Αριστοτελους) is one of the main squares of Thessaloniki, Greece. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Alexander the Great (Greek: [1], Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC — June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history, conquering most of the known world before his death; he is frequently included in a... Harpalus was an aristocrat of Macedon in the 4th century BC. He was a student of Aristotle and a close friend of Alexander the Great since childhood. ... The Stone Lion of Hamedan is said to have been erected by Alexander The Great, upon the death of Hephaestion. ... Nicomachus (c. ... Statue of Theophrastus Theophrastus, a native of Eressos in Lesbos born c. ...

Notes

link does not work

Further reading

The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.

• Ackrill J. L. 2001. Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA
• Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. New York: Macmillan. A popular exposition for the general reader.
• Bakalis Nikolaos. 2005. Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
• Barnes J. 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press
• Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
• Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle’s Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
• Burnyeat, M. F. et al. 1979. Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy
• Chappell, V. 1973. Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679-696
• Code, Alan. 1995. Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76
• Frede, Michael. 1987. Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
• Gill, Mary Louise. 1989. Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press
• Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press.
• Irwin, T. H. 1988. Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press
• Lewis, Frank A. 1991. Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
• Loux, Michael J. 1991. Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
• Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-19-517510-7.
• Owen, G. E. L. 1965c. The Platonism of Aristotle, Proceedings of the British Academy 50 125-150. Reprinted in In J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji (eds.), Articles on Aristotle, Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth (1975). 14-34
• Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.
• Reeve, C. D. C. 2000. Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.
• Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Springfield: Charles C Thomas Publisher.
• Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle, 6^th ed., London: Routledge. An classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.
• Scaltsas, T. 1994. Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Strauss, Leo. "On Aristotle's Politics" (1964), in The City and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally.
• Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). “Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology”, Greek Biology and Medicine.
• Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Bloomington: Indiana U. Press. For the general reader.
• Woods, M. J. 1991b. “Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics.” Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy supplement. 41-56

Mortimer Adler around 1963 Mortimer Jerome Adler (December 28, 1902 – June 28, 2001) was an American philosopher and author. ... Aristotle for Everybody: Difficult Thought Made Easy (ISBN 0684838230) is a book written by Mortimer J. Adler as an informal introduction to the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. ... The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... The McGraw-Hill Companies logo. ... Henry Babcock Veatch, Jr. ...

See also

• Aristotelian view of God
• Aristotelian theory of gravity
• Philia
• Phronesis
• Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)

This article is on Aristotelian and Neo-Aristotelian definitions of God. ... The Aristotelian theory of gravity was that all bodies move towards their natural place. ... A philia is the love or obsession with a particular thing or subject. ... Phronesis is a term used by Aristotle in Nicomachean ethics to describe practical wisdom or the ability to act on what one knows are good for man. ... The theory of Potentiality and Actuality is one of the central themes of Aristotles philosophy and metaphysics. ...

External links

• An extensive collection of Aristotle's philosophy and works, including lesser known texts
• Works by Aristotle at Project Gutenberg
• Works by Aristotle at PP
• This article incorporates material from Aristotle on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the GFDL.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
  • "Biology" -- by James Lennox.
  • "Causality" -- by Andrea Falcon.
  • "Ethics" -- by Richard Kraut.
  • "Logic" -- by Robin Smith.
  • "Mathematics" -- by Henry Mendell.
  • "Metaphysics" -- by S. Marc Cohen.
  • "Philosophy of Nature" -- Istvan Bodnar.
  • "Political Theory" -- by Fred Miller.
  • "Psychology" -- by Christopher Shields.
  • "Rhetoric" -- by Cristof Rapp.
• Aristotle OnLine Resources & Anthology of his works
• Catholic Encyclopedia: "Aristotle" — by William Turner.
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Aristotle".
• Aristotle section at EpistemeLinks
• A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time
• Aristotle and Indian logic
• Large collection of Aristotle's texts, presented page by page
• Source of most of the Biography and Methodology sections, as well as more overview
• O'Connor, John J., and Edmund F. Robertson. "Aristotle". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
• Test : Are you Aristotelian? (cf. Poetics)
• Short Biography of Aristotle

Project Gutenberg (often abbreviated as PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize, archive, and distribute cultural works. ... The Perseus Project is a digital library project of Tufts University that assembles digital collections of humanities resources. ... PlanetMath is a free, collaborative, online mathematics encyclopedia. ... The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (hereafter SEP) is a free online encyclopedia of philosophy run and maintained by Stanford University. ... The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language encyclopedia published in 1913 by The Encyclopedia Press. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Western philosophy is a modern claim that there is a line of related philosophical thinking, beginning in ancient Greece (Greek philosophy) and the ancient Near East (the Abrahamic religions), that continues to this day. ... The history of philosophy tracks the multitudinous theories which aim at some kind of understanding, knowledge or wisdom on fundamental matters as diverse as reality, knowledge, meaning, value, being and truth. ... This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see Pre-Socratic philosophy. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... 17th-century philosophy in the West is generally regarded as seeing the start of modern philosophy, and the shaking off of the mediæval approach, especially scholasticism. ... The term contemporary philosopher refers not just to figures who are alive, but also those who died within the past three decades, irrespective of when their major philosophy works were written or when their work was most popular. ... Below is a list of basic topics in philosophy -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of philosophy. ... This page aims to list articles on Wikipedia that are related to philosophy, beginning with the letters A through C. This is so that those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on Related changes in the sidebar. ... The alphabetical list of philosophers is so large it had to be broken up into several pages. ... Philosophies: particular schools of thought, styles of philosophy, or discriptions of philosophical ideas attributed to a particular group or culture - listed in alphabetical order. ... This is a list of topics relating to philosophy that end in -ism. ... A philosophical movement is either the appearance or increased popularity of a specific school of philosophy, or a fairly broad but identifiable sea-change in philosophical thought on a particular subject. ... This is a list of important publications in philosophy, organized by field. ... This is a list of lists. ... Kittens are often considered quite cute. ... Ethics (from the Ancient Greek ethikos, meaning arising from habit) is a major branch of philosophy. ... Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and scope of knowledge. ... Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... Plato and Aristotle, by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome). ... Philosophy of History is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history, and speculation as to a possible teleological end to its development. ... Philosophical anthropology is the discipline that seeks to unify the several empirical investigations of human nature in an effort to understand individuals as both creatures of their environment and creators of their own values. ... Philosophy of law is a branch of philosophy and jurisprudence which studies basic questions about law and legal systems, such as what is the law?, what are the criteria for legal validity?, what is the relationship between law and morality?, and many other similar questions. ... Philosophy and literature is the literary treatment of philosophers and philosophical themes. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... A Phrenological mapping of the brain. ... Meta-philosophy (philosophy of philosophy) is the study of the subject, matter, methods and aims of philosophy. ... Philosophy of physics is the study of the fundamental, philosophical questions underlying modern physics, the study of matter and energy and how they interact. ... Political philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about the state, government, politics, liberty, property, rights, law and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it... Philosophy of psychology typically refers to a set of issues at the theoretical foundations of modern psychology. ... Philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations, and implications of science, including the formal sciences, natural sciences, and social sciences. ... Philosophy of social science is the scholarly elucidation and debate of accounts of the nature of the social sciences, their relations to each other, and their relations to the natural sciences (see natural science). ... The Philosophy of technology is a philosophical field dedicated to studying the nature of technology and its social effects. ... The Philosophy of war examines war beyond the typical questions of weaponry and strategy, inquiring into the meaning and etiology of war, what war means for humanity and human nature as well as the ethics of war. ... Analytic philosophy is the dominant philosophical movement in University philosophy departments in English-speaking countries and in Scandinavia, although one of its founders, Gottlob Frege, was German, and many of its leading proponents, such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, Rudolf Carnap, Kurt Gödel, Karl Popper, Hans Reichenbach, Herbert Feigl, Otto Neurath... Continental philosophy is a term used in philosophy to designate one of two major traditions of modern Western philosophy. ... Critical theory, in sociology and philosophy, is shorthand for critical theory of society or critical social theory, a label used by the Frankfurt School, i. ... This article or section needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... It has been suggested that Marxist philosophy of nature be merged into this article or section. ... It has been suggested that Combative dualism be merged into this article or section. ... In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts. ... Humanism is a broad category of active ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities—particularly rationalism. ... Idealism is an approach to philosophical enquiry which asserts that everything is of a mental nature. ... Logical positivism (later referred to as logical empiricism, rational empiricism, or neo-positivism) is a philosophy that combines positivism—which states that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge—with a version of apriorism—the notion that some propositional knowledge can be had without, or prior to, experience. ... In philosophy, materialism is that form of physicalism which holds that the only thing that can truly be said to exist is matter; that fundamentally, all things are composed of material and all phenomena are the result of material interactions. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is a school of philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century A.D. Based on the teachings of Plato and the Platonists, it contained enough unique interpretations of Plato that some view Neoplatonism as substantively different from what Plato wrote and believed. ... Nihilism is a philosophical position which argues that the world, and especially human existence, is without objective meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. ... Ordinary language philosophy is less a philosophical doctrine or school than it is a loose network of approaches to traditional philosophical problems. ... Look up Phenomenology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Platonic idealism is the theory that the substantive reality around us is only a reflection of a higher truth. ... Positivism is a philosophy developed by Auguste Comte (widely regarded as the first true sociologist) at the beginning of the 19th century that stated that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method. ... Postmodern philosophy is an eclectic and elusive movement characterized by its criticism of Western philosophy. ... Post-structuralism is a body of work that followed in the wake of structuralism, and sought to understand the Western world as a network of structures, as in structuralism, but in which such structures are ordered primarily by local, shifting differences (as in deconstruction) rather than grand binary oppositions and... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Pre-Socratic philosophers were active before Socrates or contemporaneously, but expounding knowledge developed earlier. ... The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. ... Reformational philosophy is a movement pioneered by Herman Dooyeweerd and D. H. Th. ... Relativism expresses the view that the meaning and value of human beliefs and behaviors have no absolute reference. ... Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school, and is the school of philosophy taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100–1500. ... Philosophical skepticism or nihilistic skepticism (UK spelling, scepticism) is the philosophical school of thought in which one critically examines whether the knowledge and perceptions one has are true, and whether or not one can ever be said to have true knowledge. ... A restored Stoa in Athens. ... Structuralism is a general approach in various academic disciplines that explores the interrelationships between fundamental elements of some kind, upon which some higher mental, linguistic, social, cultural etc structures are built, through which then meaning is produced within a particular person, system, culture. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... In philosophy, the phrase virtue ethics refers to ethical systems that focus primarily on proper social institituions and the development of individual character. ... A philosopher is a person who thinks deeply regarding people, society, the world, and/or the universe. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC - 380s BC - 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC Years: 389 BC 388 BC 387 BC 386 BC 385 BC - 384 BC - 383 BC 382 BC... Stageira (Greek: &#931;&#964;&#940;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#945;) was an ancient Greek city on the Chalcidice peninsula and is chiefly known for being the birthplace of Aristotle. ... March 7 is the 66th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (67th in leap years). ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 327 BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC 323 BC - 322 BC - 321 BC 320 BC 319... Chalcis or Chalkida, Halkida, Halkis or Chalkis (Greek, Modern: Χαλκίδα, Ancient/Katharevousa: -is), the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, situated on the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point. ...