In geometry and combinatorics, an arrangement of hyperplanes is a finite set A of hyperplanes in a linear, affine, or projective space S. Questions about a hyperplane arrangement A generally concern geometrical, topological, or other properties of the complement, M(A), which is the set that remains when the hyperplanes are removed from the whole space. One may ask how these properties are related to the arrangement and its intersection semilattice. The intersection semilattice of A, written L(A), is the set of all subspaces that are obtained by intersecting some of the hyperplanes; among these subspaces are S itself, all the individual hyperplanes, all intersections of pairs of hyperplanes, etc. (excluding, in the affine case, the empty set). These subspaces are called the flats of A. L(A) is partially ordered by reverse inclusion. Table of Geometry, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics that studies collections (usually finite) of objects that satisfy specified criteria. ... A hyperplane is a concept in geometry. ... The fundamental concept in linear algebra is that of a vector space or linear space. ... In geometry, affine geometry occupies a place intermediate between Euclidean geometry and projective geometry. ... Projective geometry is a non-metrical form of geometry that emerged in the early 19th century. ... A semilattice is a mathematical concept with two definitions, one as a type of ordered set, the other as an algebraic structure. ... Screenshot (from SSCX Star Warzone). ...

If the whole space S is 2-dimensional, the hyperplanes are lines; such an arrangement is often called an arrangement of lines. Historically, real arrangements of lines were the first arrangements investigated. If S is 3-dimensional one has an arrangement of planes. A line, or straight line, can be described as an (infinitely) thin, (infinitely) long, perfectly straight curve (the term curve in mathematics includes straight curves). In Euclidean geometry, exactly one line can be found that passes through any two points. ...

General theory

The intersection semilattice

The intersection semilattice L(A) is a meet semilattice and more specifically is a geometric semilattice. If the arrangement is linear or projective, or if the intersection of all hyperplanes is nonempty, the intersection lattice is a geometric lattice. (This is why the semilattice must be ordered by reverse inclusion--rather than by inclusion, which might seem more natural but would not yield a geometric (semi)lattice.)

Polynomials

For a subset B of A, let us define f(B) := the intersection of the hyperplanes in B; this is S if B is empty. The characteristic polynomial of A, written p_A(y), can be defined by

summed over all subsets B of A except, in the affine case, subsets whose intersection is empty. (The dimension of the empty set is defined to be −1.) This polynomial helps to solve some basic questions; see below. Another polynomial associated with A is the Whitney-number polynomial w_A(x, y), defined by

summed over B ⊆ C ⊆ A such that f(B) is nonempty.

Being a geometric lattice or semilattice, L(A) has a characteristic polynomial, p_L(A)(y), which has an extensive theory (see geometric lattice). Thus it is good to know that p_A(y) = yⁱ p_L(A)(y), where i is the smallest dimension of any flat, except that in the projective case it equals y^{i + 1}p_L(A)(y). The Whitney-number polynomial of A is similarly related to that of L(A) (see geometric lattice). (The empty set is excluded from the semilattice in the affine case specifically so that these relationships will be valid.)

Real arrangements

In real affine space, the complement is disconnected: it is made up of separate pieces called regions or chambers, each of which is either a bounded region that is a convex polytope, or an unbounded region that is a convex polyhedral region which goes off to infinity. Each flat of A is also divided into pieces by the hyperplanes that do not contain the flat; these pieces are called the faces of A. The regions are faces because the whole space is a flat. The faces of codimension 1 may be called the facets of A. The face semilattice of an arrangement is the set of all faces, ordered by inclusion. Adding an extra top element to the face semilattice gives the face lattice. In mathematics, the real numbers are intuitively defined as numbers that are in one-to-one correspondence with the points on an infinite line—the number line. ... In mathematics, an object is convex if for any pair of points within the object, any point on the straight line segment that joins them is also within the object. ... In geometry polytope means, first, the generalization to any dimension of polygon in two dimensions, and polyhedron in three dimensions. ... This article is about the geometric shape. ...

In two dimensions (i.e., in the real affine plane) each region is a convex polygon (if it is bounded) or a convex polygonal region which goes off to infinity. Two intersecting planes in R3 In mathematics, a plane is a fundamental two-dimensional object. ... Look up Polygon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

• As an example, if the arrangement consists of three parallel lines, the intersection semilattice consists of the plane and the three lines, but not the empty set. There are four regions, none of them bounded.
• If we add a line crossing the three parallels, then the intersection semilattice consists of the plane, the four lines, and the three points of intersection. There are eight regions, still none of them bounded.
• If we add one more line, parallel to the last, then there are 12 regions, of which two are bounded parallelograms.

A typical problem about an arrangement in n-dimensional real space is to say how many regions there are, or how many faces of dimension 4, or how many bounded regions. These questions can be answered just from the intersection semilattice. For instance, two basic theorems are that the number of regions of an affine arrangement equals (−1ⁿp_A(−1) and the number of bounded regions equals (−1)ⁿp_A(1). Similarly, the number of k-dimensional faces or bounded faces can be read off as the coefficient of x^n−k in (−1)ⁿ w_A (−x, −1) or (−1)ⁿw_A(−x, 1). A parallelogram. ...

Another question about an arrangement in real space is to decide how many regions are simplices (the n-dimensional generalization of triangles and tetrahedra). This cannot be answered based solely on the intersection semilattice. In geometry, a simplex (plural: simplices) or n-simplex is an n-dimensional analogue of a triangle. ... A triangle is one of the basic shapes of geometry: a polygon with three vertices and three sides which are straight line segments. ... A tetrahedron (plural: tetrahedra) is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, three of which meet at each vertex. ...

A real linear arrangement has, besides its face semilattice, a lattice of regions, one for each region. This is formed by choosing a base region, R₀, and associating with each region R the set A(R₀, R) defined as the set of hyperplanes that separate the two regions. One says R₁ ≥ R₂ if A(R₁, R) contains A(R₂, R). This lattice has interesting properties that we will not go into here; notably, it is an Eulerian poset.

Complex arrangements

In complex affine space (which is hard to visualize because even the complex affine plane has four real dimensions), the complement is connected (all one piece) with holes where the hyperplanes were removed. Wikibooks Algebra has more about this subject: Complex numbers In mathematics, a complex number is an expression of the form where a and b are real numbers, and i is a specific imaginary number, called the imaginary unit, with the property i 2 = −1. ...

A typical problem about an arrangement in complex space is to describe the holes.

The basic theorem about complex arrangements is that the cohomology of the complement M(A) is largely determined by the intersection semilattice. To be precise, the Poincaré polynomial of M(A), which gives the ranks of its cohomology groups, equals In algebraic topology, the Betti numbers of a topological space X are a sequence b0, b1, ... of topological invariants. ... In mathematics, specifically in algebraic topology, cohomology is a general term for a sequence of abelian groups defined from a cochain complex. ...

(−y)ⁿp_A(−1/y);

that means the rank of H^k(M(A)) is the coefficient of y^k in the Poincaré polynomial.

Technicalities

Sometimes it is convenient to allow the degenerate hyperplane, which is the whole space S, to belong to an arrangement. If A contains the degenerate hyperplane, then it has no regions because the complement is empty. However, it still has flats, an intersection semilattice, and faces. The preceding discussion assumes the degenerate hyperplane is not in the arrangement.

Sometimes one wants to allow repeated hyperplanes in the arrangement. We did not consider this possibility in the preceding discussion, but it makes no material difference.

References

• Orlik, Peter, and Terao, Hiroaki (1992). Arrangements of Hyperplanes. Springer-Verlag, New York.
• Zaslavsky, Thomas (1975). Facing Up to Arrangements: Face-Count Formulas for Arrangements of Hyperplanes. Memoirs of the American Mathematical Society, No. 154. [Not "Vol. 154".] American Mathematical Society, Providence, R.I.