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Ascomycetes
Sarcoscypha austriaca
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Fungi Division: Ascomycota
Subphyla/Classes
Archaeascomycetes [1][4] Euascomycetes Hemiascomycetes or Pezizomycotina [1][4] Laboulbeniomycetes Eurotiomycetes Lecanoromycetes Leotiomycetes Pezizomycetes Sordariomycetes Dothideomycetes (and many more) Saccharomycotina Saccharomycetes Taphrinomycotina Neolectomycetes Pneumocystidomycetes Schizosaccharomycetes Taphrinomycetes

The Ascomycota, formerly known as the Ascomycetae, or Ascomycetes, are a Division of Fungi, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi, which produce spores in a distinctive type of microscopic sporangium called an ascus (from Greek: ἀσκός (askos), meaning "sac" or "wineskin"). Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1276x984, 393 KB) Sarcoscypha coccinea Author: User:Velela. ... Scientific classification or biological classification is a method by which biologists group and categorize species of organisms. ... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Glomeromycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Deuteromycota Fungi (singular fungus) are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms. ... Classes Neolectomycetes Pneumocystidomycetes Schizosaccharomycetes Taphrinomycetes Taphrinomycotina is a subdivision of the Ascomycota (fungi which form their spores in a sac-like ascus) and is more or less the same thing as the older taxon Archaeascomycetes. ... Classes Pezizomycotina is a subdivision of the Ascomycota (fungi which form their spores in a sac-like ascus) and is more or less the same thing as the older taxon Euascomycota. ... Orders Saccharomycetales Saccharomycetes is a class in the kingdom of fungi, and is also known as Hemiascomycetes. ... Classes Arthoniomycetes Chaetothyriomycetes Dothideomycetes Eurotiomycetes Laboulbeniomycetes Lecanoromycetes Leotiomycetes Orbiliomycetes Pezizomycetes Sordariomycetes mitosporic Pezizomycotina Pezizomycotina is a subphylum of the Ascomycota and was previously called the Euascomycota. ... The Laboulbeniomycetes are a unique group of fungi that are apparent external parasites of insects and other arthropods, both terrestrial and aquatic. ... Orders Arachnomycetales Eurotiales Onygenales Eurotiomycetes are a class of ascomycetes within the Pezizomycotina clade; some of its members were previously grouped in the class Plectomycetes. ... Suborders Cladoniineae Lecanorineae Peltigerineae Teloschistineae Lecanoromycetes are a class of pezizomycetes fungi, commonly known as the lichens and rostrate asci. ... Orders Capnodiales Cyttariales Erysiphales Helotiales Rhytismatales Thelebolales Leotiomycetes is a class of ascomycete fungi. ... Pezizomycetes are a subphylum of the phylum Ascomycota within the kingdom Fungi. ... Orders Diaporthales Hypocreales Microascales Sordariales Sordariomycetes is a class of the subdivision, Pezizomycotina, which includes ascomycetous fungi. ... Orders Capnodiales Dothideales Hysteriales Myriangiales Patellariales Pleosporales Dothideomycetes is a class of ascomycete fungi. ... Classes Saccharomycetes Saccharomycotina is an subphylum of the phylum Ascomycota, in the kingdom Fungi. ... Orders Saccharomycetales Saccharomycetes is a class in the kingdom of fungi, and is also known as Hemiascomycetes. ... Classes Neolectomycetes Pneumocystidomycetes Schizosaccharomycetes Taphrinomycetes Taphrinomycotina is a subdivision of the Ascomycota (fungi which form their spores in a sac-like ascus) and is more or less the same thing as the older taxon Archaeascomycetes. ... Species (Irregular Earth Tongue) (Egg-yellow Earth Tongue) Neolecta is a genus of ascomycetous fungi that have fruiting bodies in the shape of unbranched yellowish club-shaped columns up to about 7cm tall. ... Species Pneumocystis jiroveci (formerly ) Pneumocystis murina Pneumocystis A Pneumonia that affects individuals whose immunological defenses (immune system) have been compromised, that is caused by a microorganism (Pneumocystis Carinii) and that attacks esp. ... Orders Schizosaccharomycetales Schizosaccharomycetes is a class in the kingdom of fungi. ... This article discusses categorisations of organisms. ... This article is about a biological reproductive structure; for the video game, see Spore (video game). ... A sporangium (pl. ... An ascus (plural asci) is the spore-bearing container produced in the ascocarps of ascomycete fungi. ...

This monophyletic grouping is an extremely significant and successful group of organisms. Included are most of the fungi that combine with algae and sometimes cyanobacteria to form lichens. The majority of fungi that lack morphological evidence of sexual reproduction are placed here or in the Deuteromycota. In phylogenetics, a group is monophyletic (Greek: of one stem) if all organisms in that group are known to have developed from a common ancestral form, and all descendants of that form are included in the group. ... A seaweed (Laurencia) up close: the branches are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. ... Orders The taxonomy of the Cyanobacteria is currently under revision. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, the use of images on this page may require cleanup, involving adjustment of image placement, formatting, size, or other adjustments. ... The Deuteromycota are a form division of the fungi, including those fungi in which sexual reproduction is unknown. ...

Better known examples of sac fungi are some yeasts, morels, truffles, and Penicillium. The majority of plant-pathogenic fungi belong to this group, or the Deuteromycota. Species of ascomycetes are also popular in the laboratory. Sordaria fimicola, Neurospora crassa and several species of yeasts are used in many genetics and cell biology experiments. Typical divisions Ascomycota Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota Basidiomycotina (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are unicellular, eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi. ... Species Morchella angusticeps Morchella conica Morchella costata Morchella crassipes Morchella elata Morchella esculenta Morchella gigas Morchella semilibera Morchella spongiola Morchella spongiola var. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Species Penicillium notatum Penicillium glaucum Penicillium candida Penicillium roqueforti Penicillium marneffei Penicillium bilaiae Penicillium, commonly known as bread mold, is a genus of fungus that includes: Penicillium notatum, which produces the penicillin antibiotic. ... The Deuteromycota are a form division of the fungi, including those fungi in which sexual reproduction is unknown. ... Binomial name Sordaria fimicola (Roberge ex Desm. ... Binomial name Neurospora crassa Shear & B.O. Dodge Neurospora crassa is a type of red bread mold of the phylum Ascomycota. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota Basidiomycotina (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are unicellular, eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell. Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green). ...

The adjective which describes these fungi is ascomycetous. They typically produce great numbers of asci at any one time, and these may be contained in a structure called an ascocarp (also called an ascoma, the fruiting body of ascomycetes). Each ascus usually contains eight (or a multiple of 8) ascospores, the result of one round of mitosis following meiosis. The resulting haploid nuclei are surrounded by membranes (from the plasma membrane in Euascomycetes; from the nuclear membrane in Hemiascomycetes) and eventually a spore wall. An ascocarp is the fruiting body of some ascomycete fungi, containing millions of asci, each of which contains typically eight ascospores. ... Mushroom In fungi, the fruiting body (also known as sporocarp) is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. ... Mitosis divides genetic information during cell division. ... Not to be confused with miosis. ... Haploid (meaning simple in Greek) cells have only one copy of each chromosome. ... Classes Pezizomycotina is a subdivision of the Ascomycota (fungi which form their spores in a sac-like ascus) and is more or less the same thing as the older taxon Euascomycota. ... Orders Saccharomycetales Saccharomycetes is a class in the kingdom of fungi, and is also known as Hemiascomycetes. ...

An exception to the structure described above are ascomycetous yeasts, which are secondarily unicellular. Typical divisions Ascomycota Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota Basidiomycotina (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are unicellular, eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi. ...

Explanation of subclassification ^[4]

In the past, the ascus fungi were considered only to be a Class, not a Division (= Phylum). In this case the collective term for them is the Ascomycetes, a word which is still commonly met with. Scientific classification or biological classification refers to how biologists group and categorize extinct and living species of organisms. ... For the linguistic term, see Phylum (linguistics). ...

• The subphylum Pezizomycotina contains all the Ascomycota which have ascocarps ('fruiting bodies'), except for one genus, Neolecta, which is classed in the Taphrinomycotina. So this group includes almost all the macroscopic ascos. The cells reproduce by fission, not by budding as in yeasts. The older taxon Euascomycetes is roughly equivalent.

• The Discomycetes are a now obsolete subgroup of the Pezizomycotina including cup fungi, morels, etc. (modern classifications do not recognise their affinities)

• The subphylum Saccharomycotina comprises the 'true' yeasts which are single-celled and reproduce by budding. These have the older name Hemiascomycetes.

• The disparate subphylum Taphrinomycotina includes the remainder of the Ascomycota, which are considered to be more primitive. These can also be known as Archaeoascomycetes. It includes both hyphal fungi and yeasts.

• Some fungi have been allocated to the Ascomycota on the basis of DNA analysis although they never reproduce sexually and thus have no asci. These are the Mitosporic Ascomycota and form part of the old grouping Deuteromycota (Fungi Imperfecti), a designation which should no longer be needed, since the species can now be related to forms within the main classification system.

Classes Arthoniomycetes Chaetothyriomycetes Dothideomycetes Eurotiomycetes Laboulbeniomycetes Lecanoromycetes Leotiomycetes Orbiliomycetes Pezizomycetes Sordariomycetes mitosporic Pezizomycotina Pezizomycotina is a subphylum of the Ascomycota and was previously called the Euascomycota. ... An ascocarp is the fruiting body of some ascomycete fungi, containing millions of asci, each of which contains typically eight ascospores. ... A taxon (plural taxa), or taxonomic unit, is a grouping of organisms (named or unnamed). ... Orders Helotiales Sphaeriales Tuberales Discomycetes is a taxonomic class which contains all of the cup, sponge, brain, and club-like fungi such as the truffle and swamp beacon. ... Classes Saccharomycetes Saccharomycotina is an subphylum of the phylum Ascomycota, in the kingdom Fungi. ... Classes Neolectomycetes Pneumocystidomycetes Schizosaccharomycetes Taphrinomycetes Taphrinomycotina is a subdivision of the Ascomycota (fungi which form their spores in a sac-like ascus) and is more or less the same thing as the older taxon Archaeascomycetes. ... An ascus (plural asci) is the spore-bearing container produced in the ascocarps of ascomycete fungi. ... The Mitosporic Ascomycota are a heterogeneous group of ascomycotic fungi whose common characteristic is the absence of a sexual state; many of the pathogenic fungi in humans belong to this group. ... The Deuteromycota are a form division of the fungi, including those fungi in which sexual reproduction is unknown. ...

Physical make-up

Many of the Ascomycota consist of hyphae, long thin thread-shaped cells often only 5 micrometres thick which form the mycelium, a woolly interlaced mesh. If the hyphae of one mycelium were laid end to end, they could reach a length of several kilometers. At the other extreme are the single-celled yeasts, which can often only be seen with a microscope. A group of species such as for instance the classical Baker's Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) are however dimorphic, which means that they can appear either in single- or multi-cellular form. Hyphae as seen under a log A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long, branching filament found primarily in fungi, but also in fungus-like bacteria such as Actinomyces and Streptomyces. ... A micrometre (American spelling: micrometer, symbol µm) is an SI unit of length equal to one millionth of a metre, or about a tenth of the size of a droplet of mist or fog. ... Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching threadlike hyphae that exists below the ground or within another substrate. ... Binomial name Saccharomyces cerevisiae Meyen ex E.C. Hansen Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of budding yeast. ... Male and female Common Pheasant, illustrating the large degree of sexual dimorphism between the sexes Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species. ...

The cell walls of these fungi are almost always formed of Chitin and β-Glucans; individual cells are divided by cross-walls, the septa. These give stability to the hyphae and prevent a great loss of cytoplasm in the event that the cell membrane should be locally damaged. As a result ascomycetes can live in dry environments, contrary to the damp-loving Zygomycota (zygote fungi). Mostly the cell divisions are centrally perforated, so they have a small opening in the middle, through which cytoplasm and also nuclei can move more or less freely throughout the system of hyphae. Most hyphae only have one nucleus per cell, and are therefore described as uninucleate. Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-Acetylglucosamine units that repeat to form long chains in beta-1,4 linkage. ... Look up septum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Organelles. ... Illustration of a cell membrane The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane or plasmalemma, is a semipermeable lipid layer surrounding the cytoplasm of all living cells. ... Orders Dimargaritales Endogonales Entomophthorales Harpellales Kickxellales Microsporidia Mucorales Zoopagales Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, are a division of fungi. ... The eukaryotic cell nucleus. ...

The ascocarp of a morel contains numerous apothecia.

In the course of sexual reproduction many, but by no means all, of the ascomycota form macroscopic fruiting bodies which are visible to the naked eye, and which consist of very tightly interwoven hyphae. The fruiting bodies are called ascocarps or ascomas and can sometimes be eaten, for instance in the case of truffles. The ascocarp contains sterile and fertile hyphae, the latter of which give rise to the reproductive cells called spores (in this case ascospores). The reproductive cells are often grouped together in a regular fertile layer, the hymenium, which develops mostly on the inner surface of the ascocarp. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1600x1900, 591 KB) Morchella conica pl: Smardz stożkowaty Date: 2006/05/04, Konstancin-Jeziorna, Poland File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ascomycota Morel Ascocarp ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1600x1900, 591 KB) Morchella conica pl: Smardz stożkowaty Date: 2006/05/04, Konstancin-Jeziorna, Poland File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Ascomycota Morel Ascocarp ... Species Morchella angusticeps Morchella conica Morchella costata Morchella crassipes Morchella elata Morchella esculenta Morchella gigas Morchella semilibera Morchella spongiola Morchella spongiola var. ... An ascocarp is the fruiting body of some ascomycete fungi, containing millions of asci, each of which contains typically eight ascospores. ... Species Tuber melanosporum Tuber brumale Tuber aestivum Tuber uncinatum Tuber mesentericum Tuber magnatum Truffle describes a group of edible mycorrhizal (symbiotic relationship between fungus and plant) fungi (genus Tuber, class Ascomycetes, division Ascomycota). ... Classes Homobasidiomycetes - mushrooms Heterobasidiomycetes - jelly fungi The Subdivision Hymenomycotina (Hymenomycetes) is one of three taxa of the fungal Division Basidiomycota (fungi bearing spores on basidia). ...

The type of ascocarp (apothecium/cleistothecium/perithecium/pseudothecium) is important for the classification of the Ascomycota. See the Ascocarp article for definitions of these terms and further details. An ascocarp is the fruiting body of some ascomycete fungi, containing millions of asci, each of which contains typically eight ascospores. ...

Metabolism

Like most fungi the ascomycota principally digest living or dead biomass. To achieve this, they excrete into their surroundings powerful digestive enzymes which break down organic substances into small molecules, which are then absorbed through the cell wall. Many species live on dead plant material such as fallen leaves, twigs, or indeed large logs. Others attack plants, animals, or other fungi as parasites and derive their metabolic energy, as well as all the nutrients they need, from the cell tissue of their hosts. Especially in this group extreme specialization appears; for instance certain species attack only one particular leg of one particular insect species. The ascomycota also often take up symbiotic relationships - for instance some combine with algae or cyanobacteria, from which they obtain photosynthetic nutrients, to form lichens, and others co-operate with woodland trees as mycorrhizal fungi. Finally there are even carnivorous fungi, which have developed hyphal traps in which they can catch small protists such as amoebae, but also roundworms (Nematoda), rotifers, tardigrades, or even small arthropods such as springtails (Collembola). Digestive enzymes are enzymes in the alimentary tract with a purpose of breaking down components of food so that they can be taken up by the organism. ... A parasite is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life in or on the living tissue of a host organism and which causes harm to the host without immediately killing it. ... In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ... A seaweed (Laurencia) up close: the branches are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. ... Orders The taxonomy of the Cyanobacteria is currently under revision. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, the use of images on this page may require cleanup, involving adjustment of image placement, formatting, size, or other adjustments. ... A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas, Greek for fungus roots) is the result of a mutualistic association between a fungus and a plant. ... Typical phyla Chromista Heterokontophyta Haptophyta Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) Alveolata Dinoflagellata Apicomplexa Ciliophora (ciliates) Excavata Euglenozoa Percolozoa Metamonada Rhizaria Radiolaria Foraminifera Cercozoa Archaeplastida (in part) Rhodophyta (red algae) Glaucophyta (basal archaeplastids) Amoebozoa Choanozoa Many others; classification varies Protists (IPA: ) are a diverse group of organisms, comprising those eukaryotes that are not animals... Amoeba, amÅ“ba, or ameba is a genus of protozoa that moves by means of temporary projections called pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. ... Classes Adenophorea    Subclass Enoplia    Subclass Chromadoria Secernentea    Subclass Rhabditia    Subclass Spiruria    Subclass Diplogasteria The roundworms or nematodes (Phylum Nematoda from Gr. ... Classes Seisonoidea Bdelloidea Monogononta The rotifers make up a phylum of microscopic, and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate animals. ... Classes [1] Heterotardigrada Mesotardigrada Eutardigrada Tardigrades or water bears comprise the phylum Tardigrada. ... Families [1] Suborder Arthropleona Superfamily Entomobryoidea Entomobryidae Isotomidae Oncopoduridae Paronellidae Tomoceridae Superfamily Poduroidea Brachystomellidae Hypogastruridae Neanuridae Odontellidae Onychiuridae Poduridae Suborder Symphypleona Dicyrtomidae Katiannidae Sminthuridae Sminthurididae Bourletiellidae Arrhopalitidae Springtails (Order Collembola) form the largest of the three orders of modern hexapods that are no longer considered to be insects (along with...

In the course of their long evolutionary history the ascomycota have achieved the capability of breaking down almost every organic substance. Unlike nearly all other organisms they are able to digest with their own enzymes plant cellulose and the lignin contained in wood. Also collagen, an important structural protein in animals, and keratin (which hair is made of), serve as food sources. Exotic examples are given by the ascomycete Aureobasidium pullulans, which metabolizes wall paint, and the kerosene fungus Amorphotheca resinae, which (to the misfortune of the airline industry) feeds on aircraft fuel, and in tropical regions sometimes blocks fuel pipes. Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long-chain polymeric polysaccharide carbohydrate, of beta-glucose [1][2]. It forms the primary structural component of green plants. ... Lignin (sometimes lignen) is a chemical compound that is most commonly derived from wood and is an integral part of the cell walls of plants, especially in tracheids, xylem fibres and sclereids. ... Tropocollagen triple helix. ... Microscopy of keratin filaments inside cells. ...

Distribution and Living Environment

Hypomyces completus on culture medium

The Ascomycota are present in all land ecosystems world-wide; they even occur in Antarctica in the form of lichens. On the other hand the distribution of individual species is very variable: some are found on all continents, while for example the white truffle Tuber magnatum, which is much sought after for culinary purposes, only appears regionally in isolated locations of Italy and France. Image File history File links Hypomyces_completus. ... Image File history File links Hypomyces_completus. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, the use of images on this page may require cleanup, involving adjustment of image placement, formatting, size, or other adjustments. ... Species Tuber melanosporum Tuber brumale Tuber aestivum Tuber uncinatum Tuber mesentericum Tuber magnatum Truffle describes a group of edible mycorrhizal (symbiotic relationship between fungus and plant) fungi (genus Tuber, class Ascomycetes, division Ascomycota). ...

As already mentioned the septa (cell walls) of the Ascomycota, which divide the cells, enable the colonization of much drier environments than for instance the zygote fungi (Zygomycota). This resistance is extremely marked in the case of certain species which grow on salted fish, which is an effectively very dry situation due to the high osmotic pressure. On the other hand a small group of species has returned to live in water. Look up septum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Orders Dimargaritales Endogonales Entomophthorales Harpellales Kickxellales Microsporidia Mucorales Zoopagales Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, are a division of fungi. ... Osmotic pressure or turgor (also called turgor pressure) is the pressure produced by a solution in a space that is enclosed by a differentially permeable membrane. ...

Reproduction

The reproduction of the Ascomycota is very varied and can be either asexual or sexual. The reproductive structures which are formed in the latter case, the elongated sac-like asci, are characteristic of the class. On the other hand asexual reproduction plays by far the greater role, and many species have given up the sexual process altogether.

In the Ascomycota two fundamentally different stages in the life cycle can be distinguished: the anamorph state during which the fungus reproduces asexually, and the teleomorph state of sexual reproduction. The combination of both states is sometimes called the holomorph. In biology, fungi are placed into particular taxa based on reproductive similarities. ... Fungi are placed into particular taxa based on reproductive similarities. ... Fungi are placed into particular taxa based on reproductive similarities. ...

Since the anamorph and teleomorph often do not resemble each other superficially at all, until the late 20th century it was often not possible to know that the two stages belonged to the same species. This led to the curious situation, which is still accepted in mycological taxonomy, that two stages in the life cycle of exactly the same fungus have been allocated different species names, so the fungus has two names. For instance the sexual form of the kerosene fungus is known as Amorphotheca resinae while the asexual stage is called Hormoconis resinae. Today however molecular methods lead to the discovery of ever more links between these 'species' and so the former separation of the asexual stages into their own class, the Fungi Imperfecti (Deuteromycota or mitosporic fungi) has now become obsolete. Look up taxonomy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Deuteromycota are a form division of the fungi, including those fungi in which sexual reproduction is unknown. ...

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the dominant form of propagation in the Ascomycota, and is responsible for the rapid expansion of these fungi into areas which were previously not colonized. It occurs through reproductive structures, the conidiospores (or conidia), which are genetically identical to the parent and mostly have just one nucleus. They are also called mitospores due to the way they are generated through the cellular process of mitosis. They are generally formed on the ends of specialized hyphae, the conidiophores. Depending on the species they may be dispersed by wind or water, or also by animals. Conidia Conidia are asexual spores of a fungus. ... Mitosis divides genetic information during cell division. ... Hyphae as seen under a log A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long, branching filament found primarily in fungi, but also in fungus-like bacteria such as Actinomyces and Streptomyces. ...

Coelomycetes and Hyphomycetes

There is an enormous variety of asexual stages (anamorphs), which can be divided roughly into two groups not having fundamental taxonomic significance, the Coelomycetes and the Hyphomycetes, depending on whether the spores are formed in a closed polyhyphal structure (the conidioma, plural: conidiomata). In biology, fungi are placed into particular taxa based on reproductive similarities. ...

• Coelomycetes form their spores in sealed conidiomata which often grow just under the surface of a host organism. One distinguishes:

• • acervular conidiomata, or acervuli, which develop in the host and can thus be:
  1. 1. subcuticular, lying under the outer layer of the plant (the cuticle),
     2. intraepidermal, inside the outer cell layer (the epidermis),
     3. subepidermal, under the epidermis, or
     4. deeper inside the host.

Mostly they develop a flat layer of relatively short conidiophores which then produce masses of spores. The increasing pressure finally leads to the splitting of the epidermis and cuticle and so allows the conidia to escape.

• • pycnidial conidiomata or pycnidia, which unlike the acervuli form in the fungal tissue itself, and which are generally shaped like a bulging vase. The spores are released through a small opening at the apex, the ostiole.

• In the Hyphomycetes the conidiophores (i.e. the hyphae which carry conidia-forming cells on the end) are always free. They are mostly isolated but sometimes also appear as bundles of cells aligned in parallel (described as synnematal) or as cushion-shaped masses (described as sporodochial).

In biology, cuticle or cuticula refers to a more or less tough (but flexible) non-mineral covering of an organism, or part of it. ... Look up Epidermis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Asexual spores

Conidiospores of Trichoderma aggressivum, Diameter approx. 3µm

Conidiophores of molds of the genus Aspergillus, conidiogenesis is blastic-phialidic

Conidiophores of Trichoderma harzianum, conidiogenesis is blastic-phialidic

Conidiophores of Trichoderma fertile with vase-shaped phialides and newly formed conidia on their ends (bright points)

In order to further classify the Ascomycota in the asexual stages, it is important to consider the spores, which can be distinguished by colour, form and the way they are separated into cells. The most frequent types are the single-celled spores which are designated amerospores. If the spore is divided into two by a cross-wall (septum), it is a didmyospore. When there are two or more cross-walls the classification depends on the shape. If the septa are transversal, like the rungs of a ladder, it is a phragmospore whilst if they form a net-like structure it is a dictyospore. In staurospores ray-like 'arms' radiate from a central body; in others (helicospores) the entire spore is wound up in a spiral like a spring. Finally very long worm-like spores, of which the ratio length:diameter is more than 15:1, are called scolecospores. Image File history File links Trichoderma_aggressivum. ... Image File history File links Trichoderma_aggressivum. ... Image File history File links Aspergillus. ... Image File history File links Aspergillus. ... Image File history File links Trichoderma_harzianum. ... Image File history File links Trichoderma_harzianum. ... Image File history File links Trichoderma_fertile. ... Image File history File links Trichoderma_fertile. ... Look up septum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Conidiogenesis and Dehiscence

Two further important characteristics of the anamorphs of the Ascomycota are the conidiogenesis, the fashion in which the spores are formed, and their dehiscence, i.e. how they separate from the parent structures. The former corresponds to Embryology in animals and plants and can be divided into two fundamental forms of development: blastic conidiogenesis, where the spore is already evident before it separates from the conidiogenic hypha which is giving rise to it, and thallic conidiogenesis, where first a cross-wall appears and then the thus created cell develops into a spore. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

These two basic types can be further classified as follows.

• blastic-acropetal (repeated budding at the tip of the conidiogenic hypha, so that a chain of spores is formed with the youngest at the tip),
• blastic-synchronous (simultaneous spore formation from a central cell, sometimes with secondary acropetal chains forming from the initial spores),
• blastic-sympodial (repeated sideways spore formation from behind the leading spore, so that the oldest spore is at the main tip),
• blastic-annellidic (each spore separates and leaves a ring-shaped scar which is concentrically inside the scar left by the previous spore),
• blastic-phialidic (the spores arise and are ejected from the open ends of special conidiogenic cells called phialides which remain constant in length; an example is the anamorph of Penicillium),
• basauxic (where a chain of conidia, in successively younger stages of development, is emitted from the mother cell),
• blastic-retrogressive (spores separate off by formation of crosswalls near the tip of the conidiogenic hypha, which thus becomes progressively shorter),
• thallic-arthric (double cell walls split the conidiogenic hypha into cells which develop into short, cylindrical spores called arthroconidia; sometimes every second cell dies off, leaving the arthroconidia free),
• thallic-solitary (a large bulging cell separates from the conidiogenic hypha, forms internal walls, and develops to a phragmospore).

Essentially dehiscence can happen in two different ways. In the schizolytic variant a double dividing wall with a central lamella (layer) forms between the cells; the central layer dissolves to release the spores. In the case of rhexolytic dehiscence on the other hand the cell wall which joins the spores on the outside simply degenerates and sets free the conidia. Phialide (fi´ə-līd) [Gr. ...

Heterocaryosis and Parasexuality

A significant number of Ascomycota species either have no sexual stage or none is known. In spite of this, there are two ways in which they can conserve their genetic diversity: Heterocaryosis and Parasexuality.

The former happens simply through the merging of two hyphae belonging to different individuals, a process known as anastomosis. As a result there are more cell nuclei than normal in the mycelium and they come from genetically different parent organisms. The eukaryotic cell nucleus. ... Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching threadlike hyphae that exists below the ground or within another substrate. ...

Parasexuality, on the other hand, refers to a phenomenon where two cell nuclei merge without any sexual process and the chromosome count is doubled. This involves a complex form of the type of cell division called mitosis, where there is crossing over or recombination, i.e. an exchange of genetic material between corresponding pairs of chromosomes. In sexual reproduction, in contrast, crossing over occurs only during meiosis. Finally the chromosome count will be restored to normal by haploidization, whereby the nucleus splits into two parts each having a single set of chromosomes, with each daughter genetically different from the original parents. Figure 1: A representation of a condensed eukaryotic chromosome, as seen during cell division. ... Mitosis divides genetic information during cell division. ... It has been suggested that chromosomal crossover be merged into this article or section. ... Not to be confused with miosis. ... Ploidy indicates the number of copies of the basic number of chromosomes. ...

Sexual Reproduction

Ascus of Hypocrea virens with eight two-celled Ascospores

Sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota is marked by a characteristic structure, the ascus, which distinguishes these fungi from all others. An ascus is a tube-shaped vessel, a meiosporangium, which contains the sexual spores produced by meiosis. The latter are called ascospores in contrast to the asexual conidiospores. Image File history File links Hypocrea_virens. ... Image File history File links Hypocrea_virens. ... Not to be confused with miosis. ...

Apart from exceptions such as Baker's Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), almost all fungi of the Ascomycota are haploid, so their nuclei only contain one set of chromosomes, which makes them especially susceptible to mutations. During sexual reproduction there is a diploid phase (with two sets of chromosomes), which as a rule is very short. Then meiosis occurs, generally very soon, so that the haploid state is re-established. Binomial name Saccharomyces cerevisiae Meyen ex E.C. Hansen Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of budding yeast. ... Haploid (meaning simple in Greek) cells have only one copy of each chromosome. ... Figure 1: A representation of a condensed eukaryotic chromosome, as seen during cell division. ... Diploid (meaning double in Greek) cells have two copies (homologs) of each chromosome (both sex- and non-sex determining chromosomes), usually one from the mother and one from the father. ...

The formation of sexual spores

The sexual part of the life cycle commences when two suitable hyphae meet each other. These come from the same web of hyphae which can also generate asexual spores. The first deciding factor as to whether conjugation - that is, sexual merging - will occur, is whether the hyphae belong to the same organism, or whether they come from different individual fungi. Whilst many species are thoroughly capable of self-propagation, i.e. they are homothallic, others need non-identical partners and so are heterothallic. Besides this, the two hyphae in question must also belong to the same mating type. Mating types are a peculiarity of the fungi and correspond roughly to the sexes in plants and animals; however one species may have more than two mating types.

In the case of compatibility, gametangia form on the hyphae; these are the generative cells for the gametes, in which numerous nuclei gather. A very fine hypha, called the trichogyne, which grows out of one gametangium, now termed the ascogonium, makes a passage to a gametangium of the other indiviual, which is then the antheridium. Nuclei then pass from the antheridium (playing a 'male' role) to the ascogonium (playing a 'female' role). Gametes, from the ancient Greek γαμετης (spouse), are the specialized germ cells that come together during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually. ...

Unlike the process in animals and plants, after the union of the cytoplasms of the two gametangia (plasmogamy), the merging of the nuclei (karyogamy) does not usually occur immediately. Instead, the nuclei which have migrated in from the antheridium pair up with the nuclei of the ascogonium, but remain separate next to their partners. With this the dikaryophase of the life cycle begins; during this time the pairs of nuclei repeatedly synchronously divide, so that a great number are produced. In all probability the dikaryophase is an evolutionary adaptation which serves to exploit the potential of sexual reproduction to the full in circumstances where it is a rare event for different individuals to meet each other. After the genetic raw material has been increased by repeated division, recombination will take place independently in each pair during meiosis, so that the greatest possible quantity of genetically different spores will arise. In the red algae (Rhodophyta) a similar solution to the corresponding problem evolved independently. Organelles. ... It has been suggested that chromosomal crossover be merged into this article or section. ... Not to be confused with miosis. ... Possible classes Florideophyceae Bangiophyceae Cyanidiophyceae Red algae (Rhodophyta, pronounced /ˈrəʊdə(ʊ)ˌfʌɪtə/) are a large group of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. ...

Next millions of new dinucleate hyphae, into each of which two nuclei migrate, emerge from the fertilized ascogonium. They are also called ascogenous or fertile. They are fed by ordinary uni- or mononucleate hyphae (with only one nucleus), which are also called sterile. The tissue of sterile and fertile hyphae now grows in many cases into a macroscopically visible fruiting body, the ascocarp, which may contain millions of fertile hyphae. An ascocarp is the fruiting body of some ascomycete fungi, containing millions of asci, each of which contains typically eight ascospores. ...

Unitunicate-inoperculate Asci of Hypomyces chrysospermus

In the actual fruiting layer, the hymenium, the asci now appear. At one end of an ascogenous hypha, there develops a U-shaped hook, which points back opposite to the general growth direction. The two nuclei contained in the terminal cell then divide in such a way that the threads of their mitotic spindles run parallel, and thus two pairs of genetically different daughter nuclei arise, with one daughter of each pair near the point of the hook, and the other in the base part of the hypha. Then two parallel cross-walls appear, dividing the hypha into three sections: that at the point of the hook with one nucleus, that at the base of the original hypha with one nucleus, and the middle U-shaped part with two nuclei. Image File history File links Hypomyces_chrysospermus. ... Image File history File links Hypomyces_chrysospermus. ... Classes Homobasidiomycetes - mushrooms Heterobasidiomycetes - jelly fungi The Subdivision Hymenomycotina (Hymenomycetes) is one of three taxa of the fungal Division Basidiomycota (fungi bearing spores on basidia). ... An ascus (plural asci) is the spore-bearing container produced in the ascocarps of ascomycete fungi. ... Micrograph showing condensed chromosomes in blue and the mitotic spindle in green during prometaphase of mitosis The mitotic spindle (a. ...

If the positioning in the fruiting layer is right, the karyogamic fusion of the nuclei finally takes place in the U-shaped cell, creating the diploid zygote. It lengthens to form an elongated tube-shaped or cylinder-shaped capsule, the actual ascus. Then meiosis occurs, giving rise to four haploid nuclei. This is almost always followed by a further mitotic division, so that the ascus ultimately has eight daughter nuclei. These become enclosed, together with some of the cell plasma, each by their own membranes, and generally with a hard cell wall. Thus the dissemination cells (the ascospores) develop, lying initially like peas in a pod inside the ascus. Later, when an appropriate opportunity presents itself, they are liberated. A zygote (Greek: ζυγωτόν) is a cell that is the result of fertilization. ... Not to be confused with miosis. ... Haploid (meaning simple in Greek) cells have only one copy of each chromosome. ... Overview of the major events in mitosis In biology, mitosis is the process of chromosome segregation and nuclear division that follows replication of the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. ...

Not having flagella, ascospores are disseminated in various other ways: some are spread by wind and with others the ripe ascus breaks open on contact with water to set free the spores. Certain species have evolved regular 'spore cannons' which can eject them up to 30 cm. away. When the spores reach a suitable substrate, they germinate, form new hyphae, and so restart their life cycle, which has come full circle. A flagellum (plural, flagella) is a whip-like organelle that many unicellular organisms, and some multicellular ones, use to move about. ...

The form of the ascus is important for classification and is divided into four basic types: unitunicate-operculate, unitunicate-inoperculate, bitunicate, or prototunicate. See the article on asci for further details. An ascus (plural asci) is the spore-bearing container produced in the ascocarps of ascomycete fungi. ...

Ecology

The Ascomycota fulfil a central role in most land-based ecosystems. They are important decomposers which break down such organic materials as dead leaves, twigs, fallen trees, etc. and help the detritivores (animals which live off this decomposing material) to obtain their nutrients. By processing substances like cellulose or lignin, which are otherwise difficult to exploit, they take on an important place in the natural nitrogen cycle and the carbon cycle. An ecosystem, a contraction of ecological and system, refers to the collection of biotic and abiotic components and processes that comprise and govern the behavior of some defined subset of the biosphere. ... The fungi on the tree are decomposers. ... A dung beetle rolling a ball of dung Detritivores (also known as saprophages, detrivores or detritus feeders) are organisms that recycle detritus (decomposing organic material), returning it into the food chain. ... Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long-chain polymeric polysaccharide carbohydrate, of beta-glucose [1][2]. It forms the primary structural component of green plants. ... Lignin (sometimes lignen) is a chemical compound that is most commonly derived from wood and is an integral part of the cell walls of plants, especially in tracheids, xylem fibres and sclereids. ... Schematic representation of the flow of Nitrogen through the environment. ... The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth (other astronomical objects may have similar carbon cycles, but nothing is yet known about them). ...

Inversely the fruiting bodies of the Ascomycota provide food for a very diverse set of animals from insects and slugs and snails (Gastropoda) to rodents and larger mammals such as deer and wild boars. Orders See taxonomy Insects (Class Insecta) are a major group of arthropods and the most diverse group of animals on the Earth, with over a million described species — more than all other animal groups combined [1]. Insects may be found in nearly all environments on the planet, although only a... Subclasses Eogastropoda (True Limpets and relatives) Orthogastropoda The gastropods, gasteropods, or univalves, are the largest and most successful class of mollusks, with 60,000-75,000 known living species comprising the snails and slugs as well as a vast number of marine and freshwater species. ... Suborders Sciuromorpha Castorimorpha Myomorpha Anomaluromorpha Hystricomorpha Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents. ... Fawn redirects here. ... Binomial name Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 The Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the domesticated pig. ...

Fungi of the Ascomycota are also known for their numerous symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Common Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris) in their Magnificent Sea Anemone (Heteractis magnifica) home. ...

Lichens

Cross-section through the lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea with plainly visible layer of green algae under the surface

Pseudevernia furfuracea

Probably since early in their evolutionary history the Ascomycota have "domesticated" green algae (Chlorophyta), as well as occasionally other types of algae and cyanobacteria. Together they form the mutualistic associations known as lichens, which can survive in the least hospitable regions of the earth, including the Arctic, the Antarctic, deserts and mountaintops, and can withstand temperature extremes from -40°C to +80°C. While the photoautotrophic algal partner creates metabolic energy through photosynthesis, the fungus offers a stable supportive framework and protects from radiation and drying out. Around 42% of the Ascomycota (numerically about 18,000 species) form lichens, and almost all the fungal partners of lichens belong to the Ascomycota - the proportion of Basidiomycota is probably only two to three percent. Image File history File links Pseudevernia-furfuracea-Schnitt. ... Image File history File links Pseudevernia-furfuracea-Schnitt. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Pseudevernia_furfuracea02. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Pseudevernia_furfuracea02. ... Divisions Chlorophyta Charophyta The Green algae (singular: Green Alga) are the large group of algae from which the embryophytes (higher plants) emerged. ... A seaweed (Laurencia) up close: the branches are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. ... Orders The taxonomy of the Cyanobacteria is currently under revision. ... For other things named Lichen, see: Lichen (disambiguation). ... The red line indicates the 10°C isotherm in July, commonly used to define the Arctic region border Satellite image of the Arctic surface The Arctic is the region around the Earths North Pole, opposite the Antarctic region around the South Pole. ... Greek ἀνταρκτικός, opposite the arctic) is a continent surrounding the Earths South Pole. ... This article is about arid terrain. ... Phototrophs or photoautotrophs are photosynthetic algae, fungi, bacteria and cyanobacteria which build up carbon dioxide and water into organic cell materials using energy from sunlight. ...

Mycorrhizal fungi and endophytes

Members of the Ascomycota make two particularly important types of relationship with plants: as mycorrhizal fungi and as endophytes. The former make symbiotic associations with the root systems of the plants, which for some trees, especially conifers, can be of vital importance, enabling the uptake of mineral salts from the soil. The fungal partner is in a much better position to absorb minerals due to its finely divided mycelium, whilst the plant provides it with metabolic energy in the form of photosynthetic products. Cases are even known where mycorrhizal fungi can transport nutrients from one plant to another, stabilizing the recipient. It is likely that mycorrhizal associations enabled the conquest of the land by plants - in any case the earliest known fossils of land plants have mycorrhizae. A mycorrhiza (typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas, Greek for fungus roots) is the result of a mutualistic association between a fungus and a plant. ... An endophyte is an organism that lives within a plant for at least part of its life without causing apparent disease. ... Common Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris) in their Magnificent Sea Anemone (Heteractis magnifica) home. ... Leaf. ...

Endophytes on the other hand live inside plants, especially in the stem and leaves, but generally do not damage their hosts. The exact nature of the relationship between endophytic fungus and host is not yet well understood, but it seems that this form of colonization can bestow a higher resistance against insects, roundworms (nematodes), and bacteria; also it can enable or augment the production of poisonous alkaloids, chemicals which can affect the health of plant-eating mammals. An endophyte is an organism that lives within a plant for at least part of its life without causing apparent disease. ... Classes Adenophorea    Subclass Enoplia    Subclass Chromadoria Secernentea    Subclass Rhabditia    Subclass Spiruria    Subclass Diplogasteria The roundworms or nematodes (Phylum Nematoda from Gr. ... Phyla Actinobacteria Aquificae Chlamydiae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Lentisphaerae Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Verrucomicrobia Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. ... Diagram of Ephedrine An alkaloid, strictly speaking, is a naturally-occurring amine produced by a plant,[1] but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids. ...

Symbiotic relationships with animals

A series of Ascomycota species from the genus Xylaria are found in the nests of leafcutter ants and other fungus-growing ants of the tribe Attini and in the fungal gardens of termites (Isoptera). Since they do not generate fruiting bodies until the insects have left the nests, it is suspected that, as confirmed in several cases of Basidiomycota species, they may be cultivated. Genera Acromyrmex Atta Leafcutter ants are social insects found in warmer regions of Central and South America. ... Genera Many The Fungus-growing ants (tribe Attini) is comprised of all the known fungus-growing ant species in the world. ... Families Mastotermitidae Kalotermitidae Termopsidae Hodotermitidae Rhinotermitidae Serritermitidae Termitidae Termites, sometimes known as white ants, are a group of eusocial insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order, Isoptera. ... Classes Subdivision Teliomycotina    Urediniomycetes Subdivision Ustilaginomycotina    Ustilaginomycetes Subdivision Hymenomycotina    Homobasidiomycetes- mushrooms    Heterobasidiomycetes- jelly fungi The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club-shaped structure called a basidium. ...

On the other hand bark beetles (Scolytidae) are certainly important symbiotic partners. The female beetles transport the spores to new hosts in characteristic tucks in their skin, the mycetangia. There they eat tunnels in the wood, which lead into large chambers in which they lay their eggs. At this time the spores are released and give rise to hyphae which unlike the beetles can digest the wood. The beetle larvae feed on the fungus and after they have metamorphosed into the adult state they again carry spores with them to renew the cycle of infection. A well-known example of this is Dutch elm disease, caused by fungus Ophiostoma ulmi, being carried by the European elm bark beetle Scolytus multistriatus. Genera See text. ... Branch death, or Flagging, at multiple locations in the crown of a diseased elm. ...

Importance for humans

Tree attacked by the Bluestain fungus, Ophiostoma minus

Ascomycetes make many contributions to the good of mankind, and also have many ill effects. Image File history File links Ophiostoma_minus. ... Image File history File links Ophiostoma_minus. ...

Harmful interactions

One of their most harmful roles is as the agent of many plant diseases. For instance:

• Dutch Elm Disease, caused by the closely related species Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, has led to the death of many elms in Europe and North America.
• The originally Asian Cryphonectria parasitica is responsible for attacking Sweet Chestnuts (Castane