Ashkenazi (אַשְׁכֲּנָזִי, The Modern Hebrew language is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family. What makes it unique is that the original Hebrew Bible, the Torah, that Judaism teaches to have been recorded in the time of Moses 3,300 years ago, was written in (Biblical) Classical Hebrew. Jews have... Standard Hebrew Aškanazi, Tiberian Hebrew is an oral tradition of pronunciation for ancient forms of Hebrew, especially the Hebrew of the Bible, that was given written form by masoretic scholars in the Jewish community at Tiberias in the early middle ages, beginning in the 8th century. This written form employed symbols added to... Tiberian Hebrew ʾAškănāzî) Jews or Ashkenazic Jews, also called Ashkenazim (אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, The Modern Hebrew language is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family. What makes it unique is that the original Hebrew Bible, the Torah, that Judaism teaches to have been recorded in the time of Moses 3,300 years ago, was written in (Biblical) Classical Hebrew. Jews have... Standard Hebrew Aškanazim, Tiberian Hebrew is an oral tradition of pronunciation for ancient forms of Hebrew, especially the Hebrew of the Bible, that was given written form by masoretic scholars in the Jewish community at Tiberias in the early middle ages, beginning in the 8th century. This written form employed symbols added to... Tiberian Hebrew ʾAškănāzîm), are The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination... Jews who are descendants of Jews from The Federal Republic of Germany ( German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland) is one of the worlds leading industrialised countries, located in the heart of Europe. Due to its central location, Germany has more neighbours than any other European country: these are Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the... Germany, The Republic of Poland, a democratic country with a population of 38,626,349 and area of 312,685 km², is located in Central Europe, between Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania... Poland, The Republic of Austria ( German: Republik Österreich) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It borders Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The state is a representative democracy... Austria and Eastern Europe is, by convention, that part of Europe from the Ural and Caucasus mountains in the East to an arbitrarily chosen boundary in the West. Usually some or all of the countries adjacent to Russias western border are included. As is also true of continents, regions are only... Eastern Europe. In historical times, Ashkenazi Jews usually spoke Yiddish (ייִדיש, Jiddisch) is a Germanic language spoken by about four million Jews throughout the world. The name Yiddish itself means Jewish (German: Jüdisch, Swedish: Jiddisch) and is most probably originally short for yidish-taytsh (ייִדיש - טיַ... Yiddish or The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) comprise the languages of the Slavic peoples. They form a distinct group of Indo-European languages, with speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia. Branches Scholars divide... Slavic languages such as (now extinct) Knaanic (also called Canaanic, Leshon Knaan or Judeo-Slavic) was a West Slavic language, formerly spoken in the Czech lands, now the Czech Republic. It became extinct in the late Middle Ages. The name Knaanic applied mainly to Judeo-Czech, but also to other Judeo-Slavic languages. See also Jewish... Knaanic.

Since the Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. In the sense of the Common Era... 19th century, many of them have emigrated to other countries such as The French Republic or France ( French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. France is a democracy organised as a... France, the The United States of America — also referred to as the United States, the U.S.A., the U.S., America¹, the States, or (archaically) Columbia — is a federal republic of 50 states located primarily in central North America (with the exception of two states: Alaska and Hawaii... United States and, recently, The State of Israel (Hebrew: מדינת ישראל, translit.: Medinat Yisrael; Arabic: دولة اسرائيل, translit.: Daulat Israil) is a country in the Middle East on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea... Israel.

History of the word Ashkenaz

Ashkenaz is a traditional The Modern Hebrew language is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family. What makes it unique is that the original Hebrew Bible, the Torah, that Orthodox Judaism teaches to have been recorded in the time of Moses 3,300 years ago, was written in Biblical Classical Hebrew. Jews... Hebrew word for Germany, and in particular to the area along the Rhine where the allemani tribe once lived (compare the French and Spanish words Allemagne and Alemania, respectively, for Germany).

The word ashkenazi is often used in medieval Rabbinic literature, in the broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of rabbinic writing throughout history. However, the term often used as an exact cognate of the Hebrew term Sifrut Hazal (ספרות חזל; The Literature of our Sages, of blessed memory), where the latter... rabbinic literature. References to Ashkenaz in Josephus, also known as Flavius Josephus (c. 37–c. 100) was a 1st century Jewish historian of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 and settled in Rome. He was originally known as Yosef Ben-Matityahu (Matthias in Greek). Josephus wrote an... Yosippon and Hasdai's letter to the king of the The Khazars were a semi- nomadic Turkic people from Central Asia, many of whom converted to Judaism. The name Khazar seems to be tied to a Turkic verb meaning wandering. In the 7th century CE they founded an independent Khaganate in the Northern Caucasus along the Caspian Sea, where over... Khazars would date the term as far back as the tenth century, as would also Saadia Ben Joseph Gaon ( 892- 942), the Hebrew name of Said al-Fayyumi, was a rabbi who was also a prominent Jewish exilarch, philosopher, and exegete. Born in upper Egypt in 892, he died in Babylonia at Sura in 942. The name Saadia, is apparently the Hebrew equivalent of his... Saadia Gaon's commentary on Daniel 7:8. Literature about the alleged Turkic origin of the Ashkenazi population appeared mainly after Events January January 5 - US Senator Estes Kefauver introduces a resolution calling for examination of organized crime in the USA January 6 - The United Kingdom recognizes the Peoples Republic of China. The Republic of China severs diplomatic relations with Britain in response. January 9 - The Israeli government recognizes the... 1950. In the first half of the eleventh century Hai Gaon refers to questions that had been addressed to him from "Ashkenaz", by which he undoubtedly means The Federal Republic of Germany ( German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland) is one of the worlds leading industrialised countries, located in the heart of Europe. Due to its central location, Germany has more neighbours than any other European country: these are Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the... Germany. Rashi (1040-1105) is the acronym of Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac (or: Shlomo Yitzhaki). He is one of Judaisms classic meforshim (Bible and Talmud commentators), and wrote the first comprehensive commentaries on the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and Talmud. Rashi lived in Troyes, a city in northern France, where... Rashi in the latter half of the eleventh century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz (Commentary on Deuteronomy 3:9; idem on The first page of the Talmud, in the standard Vilna edition. The core text of the Mishna and Talmud is in the center; commentaries and notes on either side surround it. The Talmud (התלמוד) is considered an authoritative record of rabbinic discussions on Jewish law... Talmud tractate Sukkah 17a) and the country of Ashkenaz (Talmud, Hullin 93a). During the twelfth century the word appears quite frequently. In the Mahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances (ib. p. 129).

In the literature of the thirteenth century references to the land and the language of Ashkenaz often occur. See especially Solomon ben Aderet's Responsa (vol. i., No. 395); the Responsa of Asher ben Jehiel (or Rabeinu Osher ben Yechiel) (1250? 1259?-1328), an eminent rabbi and Talmudist often known by his Hebrew acronym the ROSH (literally Head), was born in western Germany and died in Toledo, Spain. His family was prominent for learning and piety, his father having been a learned... Asher ben Jehiel (pp. 4, 6); his Halakot (Berakot i. 12, ed. Wilna, p. 10); the work of his son Jacob ben Asher, in Hebrew Yaakov ben Asher, (1270-ca 1340) was an influential Medieval rabbinic authority. He is often referred to as the Baal ha-Turim (Master of the Turim (Pillars)), after his main work in halakha (Jewish law). He was the son of the Rabbi Asher ben... Jacob ben Asher, Tur Orah Hayyim (chapter 59); the Responsa of Isaac ben Sheshet (numbers 193, 268, 270).

The first use of the name comes from a Midrash (pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a Biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical or homiletical commentaries on the Tanakh . Midrash can be used as... Midrash about the descendants of Japheth (יֶפֶת / יָפֶת Enlarge, Standard Hebrew Yéfet / Yáfet, Tiberian Hebrew Yép̄eṯ / Yāp̄eṯ) is one of the sons of Noah in the Bible. He is most popularly regarded as... Japheth (Genesis 10:1). In the Midrash compilation Genesis Rabbah, Rabbi Berechiah mentions "Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah" as The Federal Republic of Germany ( German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland) is one of the worlds leading industrialised countries, located in the heart of Europe. Due to its central location, Germany has more neighbours than any other European country: these are Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the... German tribes or as German lands. It may correspond to a The Greek language (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – Hellenic) is an Indo-European language with a documented history of some 3,000 years. Ancient Greek in its various forms was the language both of classical Greek civilisation and of the origins of Christianity, and... Greek word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Palestinian Jews, or the text is corrupted from "Germanica." This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by Germamia, which evidently stands for Germany, and which was suggested by the similarity of the sound.

In later times the word Ashkenaz is used to designate southern and western Germany, the ritual of which sections differs somewhat from that of eastern Germany and The Republic of Poland, a democratic country with a population of 38,626,349 and area of 312,685 km², is located in Central Europe, between Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania... Poland. Thus the prayer-book of Isaiah Horowitz, and many others, give the piyyutim according to the Minhag of Ashkenaz and Poland.

Customs, laws and traditions

The Halakha (הלכה in Hebrew or Halakhah, Halacha, Halachah) is the collective corpus of Jewish law, custom and tradition regulating all aspects of behavior. The name Halakha derives from the Hebrew הלכ, halach meaning going or the [correct] way; thus a literal translation does not yield... halakhic practices of Ashkenazi Jews may differ from those of In the strictest sense, a Sephardi (ספרדי, Standard Hebrew Səfardi, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardî; plural Sephardim: ספרדים, Standard Hebrew Səfardim, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardîm) is a Jew original to the... Sephardi Jews, particularly in matters of custom. Differences are noted in the The Shulkhan Arukh (Hebrew: Prepared Table), by Rabbi Yosef Karo is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud. With its commentaries, it is the main authoratitive source of halakha (Jewish law and custom). Structure The Shulkhan Arukh (and its forerunner Beth Yosef) follow the same structure... Shulkhan Arukh itself, in the gloss of Moses Isserles. Well known differences in practice include:

• Observance of Passover, also known as Pesach or Pesah (פסח pesaḥ), is a Jewish holiday (lasting seven days in Israel and among some liberal Diaspora Jews, and eight days among other Diaspora Jews) that commemorates the exodus and freedom of the Israelites from Egypt; it is also observed by... Pesach (Passover): Ashkenazi Jews traditionally refrain from eating legumes, peanuts, corn, millet, and rice, whereas Sephardi Jews typically do not prohibit these foods.
• In the case of The circled U indicates that this can of tuna is certified kosher by the Union of Orthodox Congregations. The laws of kashrut (Hebrew כַּשְׁרוּת, Standard Hebrew kašrut, Tiberian Hebrew kašrûṯ) (keeping kosher, Hebrew כֶּ... kashrut for meat, conversely, Sephardi Jews have stricter requirements - this level is commonly referred to as The Shulkhan Arukh (Hebrew: Prepared Table), by Rabbi Yosef Karo is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud. With its commentaries, it is the main authoratitive source of halakha (Jewish law and custom). Structure The Shulkhan Arukh (and its forerunner Beth Yosef) follow the same structure... Beth Yosef. Meat products which are not glatt may still be acceptable to Ashkenazi Jews as kosher, but are considered by the Sephardi Jews to be treif (non-kosher).
• Ashkenazi Jews frequently name newborn children after deceased family members, but not after living relatives. Sephardi Jews, on the other hand, often name their children after the children's grandparents, even if those grandparents are still living. (See In the strictest sense, a Sephardi (ספרדי, Standard Hebrew Səfardi, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardî; plural Sephardim: ספרדים, Standard Hebrew Səfardim, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardîm) is a Jew original to the... Sephardi Names).
• Ashkenazi Jews have a custom not to see their bride/groom one week prior to their wedding.

Relationship to other Jews

The term Ashkenazi also refers to the nusach ( The Modern Hebrew language is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family. What makes it unique is that the original Hebrew Bible, the Torah, that Orthodox Judaism teaches to have been recorded in the time of Moses 3,300 years ago, was written in Biblical Classical Hebrew. Jews... Hebrew, "liturgical tradition") used by Ashkenazi The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination... Jews in their The siddur is the prayerbook used by Jews the world over, containing a set order of daily prayers. There is a separate entry on the prayers that appear in the siddur, and when they are said. This entry discusses how some of these prayers evolved, and how the siddur as... Siddur (prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers.

This phrase is often used in contrast with In the strictest sense, a Sephardi (ספרדי, Standard Hebrew Səfardi, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardî; plural Sephardim: ספרדים, Standard Hebrew Səfardim, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardîm) is a Jew original to the... Sephardi Jews, also called Sephardim, who are descendants of Jews from The Kingdom of Spain or Spain ( Spanish: Reino de España or España; Catalan: Regne dEspanya; Basque: Espainiako Erresuma; Galician: Reino da España) is a country located in the southwest of Europe. It shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal, Gibraltar and Andorra. To the... Spain, and The Republic of Portugal (República Portuguesa), or Portugal, is a democratic republic located on the west and southwest parts of the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe; it is the westernmost country in continental Europe. Portugal is bordered by Spain to the north and east and by the Atlantic... Portugal. There are some differences in how the two groups pronounce Hebrew, and in points of ritual.

Several famous people have this as a surname, e.g. Vladimir Davidovich Ashkenazy (sometimes transliterated Ashkenazi) (Russian: Влади́мир А́шкенази) (born July 6, 1937), is a conductor and pianist. He was born in Gorky, Russia. A graduate of the Moscow Conservatory, he won second prize... Vladimir Ashkenazi. Ironically, most people with this surname are in fact Sephardi, and usually of Syrian Jewish background. This family name was adopted by the families who lived in In the strictest sense, a Sephardi (ספרדי, Standard Hebrew Səfardi, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardî; plural Sephardim: ספרדים, Standard Hebrew Səfardim, Tiberian Hebrew Səp̄ardîm) is a Jew original to the... Sephardic countries and were of Askenazic origins, after being nicknamed Askenazi by their respective communities. Some have shortened the name to Ash. Other spellings exist, such as Eskenazi by the Syrian Jews who relocated to Panama (Spanish: Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. It constitutes the last part of a natural land bridge between the North American and South American continents. It borders Costa Rica to the west and Colombia to the east. National motto: n/a Official language Spanish Capital Panama City... Panama and other South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. South America is situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. It became attached to North America only recently, geologically speaking, with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama... South-American Jewish communities.

See also: The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination... Jew, For a discussion of Jews as an ethnicity or ethnic group see the article on Jew. The Star of David, a common symbol of Jews and Judaism Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths. It is also one of... Judaism, Rabbenu Gershom (also known as Gershom ben Judah) (c. 960 -1040? 1028?) was a Jewish Rabbenu who was the head of a Yeshiva in Mainz. He is commonly known as Rabbenu Gershom Meir Hagolah (Our teacher Gershom the light of the exile). He was the spiritual guider of the then... Rabbenu Gershom

Medicine

The Ashkenazi Jewish population has, like many other populations, a higher incidence of specific For the scientific journal Heredity see Heredity (journal) Heredity (the adjective is hereditary) is the transfer of characters from parent to offspring, either through their genes or through the social institution called inheritance (for example, a title of nobility is passed from individual to individual according to relevant customs and... hereditary A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, syndromes, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while... diseases. Genetic counseling generally refers to prenatal counseling done when a genetic condition is suspected in a pregnancy. Genetic counseling can occur before conception (i.e. when one or two of the parents are carriers of a certain trait), during pregnancy (i.e. if an abnormality is noted on an ultrasound... Genetic counseling and Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a persons ancestry. Every person carries two copies of every gene, one inherited from their mother, one inherited from their father. The human genome is believed to contain about 25,000... genetic testing are recommended for couples where both partners are of Ashkenazi ancestry. Some organizations, most notably The organisation Dor Yeshorim operates in Orthodox Jewish circles to minimise the occurrence of genetic disorders in the community. The organization Dor Yeshorim is based in Brooklyn, New York, but has offices in Israel and various other countries. It does not have a web presence but announces testing sessions in... Dor Yeshorim, organize screening programs to prevent Homozygote cells are diploid or polyploid and have the same alleles at a locus (position) on homologous chromosomes. When an organism is referred to as being homozygous for a specific gene, it means that it carries two identical copies of that gene on the two corresponding chromosomes (e.g. the... homozygosity for the This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). Introns are regions often found in eukaryote genes which are removed in the splicing process: only the exons encode the protein. This diagram labels a region of only 40... genes that cause these diseases. A large number of these diseases are neurological. See Jewish Genetics Center (http://www.jewishgeneticscenter.org) for more information on testing programmes.

Diseases with higher incidence in Ashkenazim include:

• Bloom syndrome is a genetic condition characterized by prenatal growth delay and a butterfly rash in the mid-face region. The most serious characteristics of this condition are a predisposition to cancer and infections. Intelligence is unsually not affected in this disorder, although mild mental retardation has been seen in... Bloom syndrome
• Canavan disease, also known as Van Bogaert-Bertrand disease is a rare, inherited, neurological disorder characterized by spongy degeneration of the brain (in which the white matter is replaced by microscopic fluid-filled spaces). It was first described by Myrtelle Canavan in 1931. Canavan disease is one of a group... Canavan disease
• Non-classical Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) refers to any of several autosomal recessive diseases resulting from defects in steps of the synthesis of cortisol from cholesterol by the adrenal glands. Most of these diseases involve excessive or defective production of sex steroids and can pervert or impair development of primary or secondary... congenital adrenal hyperplasia
• Crohns disease is a chronic inflammatory disease of the digestive tract and it can involve any part of it - from the mouth to the anus. It typically affects the terminal ileum as well as demarcated areas of large bowel, with other areas of the bowel being relatively unaffected. It... Crohn's disease (Dr Crohn worked in Mount Sinai Hospital (zip code 10029) is a hospital in New York City, New York, serving Manhattans Upper East Side and Harlem. Founded in 1852, Mount Sinai is one of the oldest and largest voluntary teaching hospitals in the United States. It is a 1,171-bed tertiary-care... Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, NY)
• Cystic fibrosis (CF), also called mucoviscidosis, is an autosomal recessive hereditary disease that affects the lungs, sweat glands and the digestive system. Symptoms The symptoms of CF usually develop during early childhood. Both lungs and pancreas produce abnormally viscous mucus. This mucus begins to build up and starts to clog... Cystic fibrosis
• Familial dsyautonomia is a disorder of the autonomic nervous system resulting in variable syptoms including insensivity to pain, inability to produce tears, poor growth, and labile blood pressure. People with FD have frequent vomiting, pneumonia, problems with speech and movement, and difficulty swallowing. FD does not affect intelligence. Incidence FD... Familial dysautonomia (Riley-Day Syndrome)
• Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare genetic disease that affects children and adults from all ethnic backgrounds. Named for Swiss pediatrician, Guido Fanconi, it is one of the inherited anemias that leads to bone marrow failure (aplastic anemia). FA is an autosomal recessive genetic condition. Both parents must be carriers... Fanconi anemia
• Gaucher's disease
• A mild form of hemophilia that mainly occurs in Jews of Ashkenazi descent. It is due to deficiency of coagulation factor XI. Treatment is usually not necessary, except in relation to operations. Categories: Stub | Hematology ... Hemophilia C
• Mucolipidosis IV
• Niemann-Pick disease is an inherited condition involving lipid metabolism (the breakdown and use of fats and cholesterol in the body) in which harmful amounts of lipids accumulate in the spleen, liver, lungs, bone marrow, and brain. Autosomal recessive inheritence There are four variants of Nieman-Pick disease based on... Niemann-Pick disease
• Tay-Sachs disease is a fatal genetic disorder, inherited in an autosommal recessive pattern, in which harmful quantities of a fatty substance called ganglioside GM2 accumulate in the nerve cells in the brain. The disease is named after the British ophthalmologist Warren Tay who first described the red spot on... Tay-Sachs disease
• Torsion dystonia
• Von Gierke disease
• Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. Worldwide, it is the most common form of cancer in females, affecting approximately 10% of all women at some stage of their life in the Western world. Although significant efforts are made to achieve early detection and effective treatment, about 20% of all... Breast cancer and ovarian cancer (due to higher distribution of External links Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man: OMIM 113705 Categories: Biology stubs | Oncology | Genes ... BRCA1 and BRCA2 refers to either a gene (BReast-CAncer susceptibility gene 2, located on human chromosome 13, 13q12-13) or the protein coded for by that gene. The BRCA2 protein functions as a tumor suppressor. Like the BRCA1 protein, BRCA2 seems to function in the cell nucleus to repair damaged DNA... BRCA2).
• Diagram of the stomach, colon, and rectum Colorectal cancer includes cancerous growths in the colon, rectum and appendix. It is the third most common form of cancer and the second leading cause of death among cancers in the Western world. Many colorectal cancers are thought to arise from polyps in... Colon cancer due to HNPCC.

References

• Beider, Alexander (2001): A Dictionary of Ashkenazic Given Names: Their Origins, Structure, Pronunciations, and Migrations. Avotaynu. ISBN 1886223122.
• Brook, Kevin Alan (1999): The Jews of Khazaria. Jason Aronson. ISBN 0765762129.
• Brook, Kevin Alan (2003): "The Origins of East European Jews" in Russian History/Histoire Russe vol. 30, nos. 1-2, pp. 1-22.
• Haumann, Heiko (2001): A History of East European Jews. Central European University Press. ISBN 9639241261.
• Koestler, Arthur (1976): The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage. Random House. ISBN 0394402847. (Most hypotheses in this book are now considered incorrect by most historians)
• Wexler, Paul (1993): The Ashkenazic Jews: A Slavo-Turkic People in Search of a Jewish Identity. Columbus: Slavica. ISBN 0893572411.