Marble herm in the Vatican Museums inscribed with Aspasia's name at the base. Discovered in 1777, this marble herm is a Roman copy of a 5th-century BC original and may represent Aspasia's funerary stele.

Aspasia (c. 470 BC^[1][2]–c. 400 BC,^[1][3] Greek: Ἀσπασία) was a renowned woman of ancient Greece, famous for her romantic involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles.^[4] She was born in the city of Miletus in Asia Minor, but at some point she traveled to Athens, where she spent the rest of her life. After Pericles' death, she was allegedly involved with Lysicles, another Athenian statesman and general. She had a son with Pericles, Pericles the Younger, who was elected general and was executed after the Battle of Arginusae. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1760x2676, 2777 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Aspasia Wikipedia:Todays featured article/requests Ancient Greek eros Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1760x2676, 2777 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Aspasia Wikipedia:Todays featured article/requests Ancient Greek eros Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added... In ancient Greece, before his role as protector of merchants and travelers, Hermes was a phallic god, associated with fertility, luck, roads and borders. ... Entrance to the museum Staircase of the Vatican Museum The Vatican Museums (Musei Vaticani) are the public art and sculpture museums in the Vatican City, which display works from the extensive collection of the Roman Catholic Church. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Ancient Egyptian funerary stele Suenos Stone in Forres Scotland A stele (or stela) is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than it is wide, erected for funerary or commemorative purposes, most usually decorated with the names and titles of the deceased or living—inscribed, carved in relief (bas... Centuries: 4th century BC - 5th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 520s BC 510s BC 500s BC 490s BC 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC Years: 475 BC 474 BC 473 BC 472 BC 471 BC - 470 BC - 469 BC 468 BC... The Celtics claim Vienna, Austria. ... Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around one thousand years. ... Nickname: City of Athena or Cradle of Democracy Location of the city of Athens (red dot) within the Prefecture of Athens and Periphery of Attica Coordinates: Country Greece Peripheries Attica Prefecture Athens Founded circa 2000 BC Mayor Nikitas Kaklamanis Area    - City 38. ... For the Shakespeare play, see Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ... The lower half of the benches and the remnants of the scene building of the theater of Miletus, as it was on August 6, 2005. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Lysicles or Lysikles (? - 428 BC-427 BC, Greek: ) was an Athenian general and leader of the democratic faction in the city. ... Combatants Sparta Athens Commanders Callicratidas† 8 generals Strength 120 ships 155 ships Casualties 70 ships 25 ships The naval Battle of Arginusae took place in 406 BC during the Peloponnesian War just east of the island of Lesbos. ...

Aspasia appears in the philosophical writings of Plato and other philosophers and is regarded by modern scholars as an exceptional person who distinguished herself through her political influence and intellectual charisma. However, almost nothing is certain about her life. While ancient writers report that Aspasia was a brothel keeper and a harlot, many of these were comic poets who intended to ridicule Pericles and the war rather than document anything factual about Aspasia, and their accounts are disputed.^[5] Some researchers question even the assessment that she was a hetaera, or courtesan.^[α] For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... The word harlot is an archaic term that means a prostitute. ... Hetaera (Greek: singular: Εταίρα Hetaera, plural: Εταίραι Hetaerae)In ancient Greece, hetaerae were courtesans, that is to say, sophisticated companions and prostitutes. ... A courtesan of mid-16th century usage referred to a high-class prostitute or mistress, especially one associated with rich, powerful, or upper-class men who provided luxuries and status in exchange for her services. ...

Origin and early years

Aspasia was born in the Ionian Greece colony of Miletus (in the modern Aydın Province, Turkey), and her father's name was Axiochus. She was a free woman, not a Carian prisoner-of-war turned slave as some ancient sources claim.^[β] She must have belonged to a wealthy family, because her parents could afford an education for their daughter.^[6] Ionia (Greek Ιωνία; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was an ancient region of southwestern coastal Anatolia (now in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea. ... shows the Location of the Province Aydın Aydın is a province of Turkey, and its located in the southwestern Anatolian district, or more specifically in the Aegan region, in Turkish called Ege bölgesi. ... Location of Caria Caria (Greek Καρία; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was a region of Asia Minor, situated south of Ionia, and west of Phrygia and Lycia. ...

The circumstances that took her to Athens are not known. The discovery of a 4th-century grave inscription that mentions the names of Axiochus and Aspasius has led historian Peter K. Bicknell to attempt a reconstruction of Aspasia's family background and Athenian connections. His theory connects her to Alcibiades II of Scambonidae, who was ostracized from Athens in 460 BC and may have spent his exile in Miletus.^[1] Bicknell conjectures that, following his exile, the elder Alcibiades went to Miletus, where he married the daughter of a certain Axiochus. Alcibiades apparently returned to Athens with his new wife and her younger sister, Aspasia. Bicknell argues that the first child of this marriage was named Axiochus (uncle of the famous Alcibiades) and the second Aspasios. He also maintains that Pericles met Aspasia through his close connections with Alcibiades's household.^[7] Ostracism (Greek ostrakismos) was a procedure under the Athenian democracy in which a prominent citizen could be expelled from the city-state of Athens for ten years. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 5th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 500s BC 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC - 450s BC - 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC Years: 465 BC 464 BC 463 BC 462 BC 461 BC - 460 BC - 459 BC 458 BC... Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (Greek: ; English /ælsɪbaɪədi:z/; 450 BC–404 BC), also transliterated as Alkibiades, was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. ...

Life in Athens

Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904): Socrates seeking Alcibiades in the house of Aspasia, 1861

According to the disputed statements of the ancient writers and some modern scholars, in Athens Aspasia became a hetaera and probably ran a brothel.^[α][8][9] Hetaerae were professional high-class entertainers, as well as courtesans. Besides developing physical beauty, they differed from most Athenian women in being educated (often to a high standard, as in Aspasia's case), having independence, and paying taxes.^[10][11] They were the nearest thing perhaps to liberated women; and Aspasia, who became a vivid figure in Athenian society, was probably an obvious example.^[10][12] According to Plutarch, Aspasia was compared to the famous Thargelia, another renowned Ionian hetaera of ancient times.^[13] Image File history File links AspasiaAlcibiades. ... Image File history File links AspasiaAlcibiades. ... Jean-Léon Gérôme (May 11, 1824 - 1904) was a French painter and sculptor who produced many works in a historical, Orientalist style. ... Hetaera (Greek: singular: Εταίρα Hetaera, plural: Εταίραι Hetaerae)In ancient Greece, hetaerae were courtesans, that is to say, sophisticated companions and prostitutes. ... A brothel, also known as a bordello or whorehouse, is an establishment specifically dedicated to prostitution. ... A courtesan of mid-16th century usage referred to a high-class prostitute or mistress, especially one associated with rich, powerful, or upper-class men who provided luxuries and status in exchange for her services. ... The economy of ancient Greece was characterized by the extreme importance of agriculture, all the more so because of the relative poverty of Greeces soil. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was an Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Thargelia (Greek: ) was a renowned hetaira (professional high-class entertainer, something like a courtesan) in ancient Greece. ...

Being a foreigner and possibly a hetaera, Aspasia was free of the legal restraints that traditionally confined married women to their homes, and thereby was allowed to participate in the public life of the city. She became the mistress of the statesman Pericles in the early 440s and, after he divorced his first wife (c. 445 BC), began to live with him, although her marital status remains disputed.^[γ][14] Their son, Pericles the Younger, must have been born by 440 BC. Aspasia would have to have been quite young, if she were able to bear a child to Lysicles c. 428 BC.^[15] Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC - 440s BC - 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC Years: 450 BC 449 BC 448 BC 447 BC 446 BC - 445 BC - 444 BC 443 BC... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC - 440s BC - 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC Years: 445 BC 444 BC 443 BC 442 BC 441 BC - 440 BC - 439 BC 438 BC... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC - 420s BC - 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC Years: 433 BC 432 BC 431 BC 430 BC 429 BC - 428 BC - 427 BC 426 BC...

In social circles, Aspasia was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser rather than merely an object of physical beauty.^[9] According to Plutarch, their house became an intellectual centre in Athens, attracting the most prominent writers and thinkers, including the philosopher Socrates. The biographer writes that, despite her immoral life, Athenians used to bring their wives to hear her converse.^[δ][13][16] Socrates (Greek: , invariably anglicized as , SÇ’cratÄ“s; circa 470–399 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher who is widely credited for laying the foundation for Western philosophy. ...

Personal and judicial attacks

Pericles, Aspasia and their friends were not immune from attack, as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule.^[17] Her relationship with Pericles and her subsequent political influence aroused many reactions. Donald Kagan, a Yale historian, believes that Aspasia was particularly unpopular in the years immediately following the Samian War.^[18] In 440 BC, Samos was at war with Miletus over Priene, an ancient city of Ionia in the foot-hills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians.^[19] When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration at Athens, the Samians refused. In response, Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos.^[20] The campaign proved to be difficult and the Athenians had to endure heavy casualties before Samos was defeated. According to Plutarch, it was thought that Aspasia, who came from Miletus, was responsible for the Samian War, and that Pericles had decided against and attacked Samos to gratify her.^[13] The speakers platform in the Pnyx, the meeting ground of the assembly where all the great political struggles of Athens were fought during the Golden Age. Here Athenian statesmen stood to speak, such as Pericles and Aristides in the 5th century BC and Demosthenes and Aeschines in the 4th... Donald Kagan (born 1932) is a Yale historian specializing in ancient Greece, notable for his four-volume history of the Peloponnesian War. ... Yale redirects here. ... The war in Samos was the most important military event in ancient Greece before the Peloponnesian War. ... Samos (Greek Σάμος) is a Greek island in the Eastern Aegean Sea, located between the island of Chios to the North and the archipelagic complex of the Dodecanese islands to the South and in particular the island of Patmos and off the coast of Turkey, on what was formely known as... Priene (mod. ... Ionia (Greek Ιωνία; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was an ancient region of southwestern coastal Anatolia (now in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea. ... Mycale (also Mycǎlé, Mukalê, Mykale and Mycali; called Samsun Daği in modern Turkey) is a mountain on the west coast of central Anatolia in Turkey, north of the mouth of the Maeander and opposite the island of Samos. ...

Before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC–404 BC), Pericles, some of his closest associates and Aspasia faced a series of personal and legal attacks. Aspasia, in particular, was accused of corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles' perversions.^[ε] According to Plutarch, she was put on trial for impiety, with the comic poet Hermippus as prosecutor.^[στ][21] All these accusations were probably nothing more than unproven slanders, but the whole experience was bitter for the Athenian leader. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a rare emotional outburst of Pericles,^[ζ] his friend, Phidias, died in prison. Another friend of his, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) for his religious beliefs.^[22] According to Kagan it is possible that Aspasia's trial and acquittal were late inventions, "in which real slanders, suspicions and ribald jokes were converted into an imaginary lawsuit".^[18] Anthony J. Podlecki, Professor of Classics at the University of British Columbia, asserts that Plutarch or his source possibly misunderstood a scene in some comedy.^[23] Kagan argues that even if we believe these stories, Aspasia was unharmed with or without the help of Pericles.^[24] Sketch of Aristophanes Aristophanes (Greek: , c. ... Greek comedy is the name given to a wide genre of theatrical plays written, and performed, in Ancient Greece. ... Combatants Delian League led by Athens Peloponnesian League led by Sparta Commanders Pericles Cleon Nicias Alcibiades Archidamus II Brasidas Lysander For the earlier war beginning in 460 BC, see First Peloponnesian War The Peloponnesian War (431 BC–404 BC) was an Ancient Greek military conflict fought between Athens and its... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC - 430s BC - 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC 380s BC Years: 436 BC 435 BC 434 BC 433 BC 432 BC - 431 BC - 430 BC 429 BC... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC - 400s BC - 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC Years: 409 BC 408 BC 407 BC 406 BC 405 BC - 404 BC - 403 BC 402 BC... Hermippus, the one-eyed, Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, flourished during the Peloponnesian War. ... Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema Phidias (or Pheidias) (in ancient Greek, ) (c. ... Anaxagoras Anaxagoras (Greek: Αναξαγόρας, c. ... The ecclesia or ekklesia (Greek έκκλησία) was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens. ... Classics, particularly within the Western University tradition, when used as a singular noun, means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of Greek and Roman culture during the time frame known as classical antiquity. ... The University of British Columbia (UBC) is a public university with its main campus located at Point Grey, in the University Endowment Lands adjacent to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and another smaller campus known as UBC Okanagan located in Kelowna, British Columbia. ...

In The Acharnians, Aristophanes blames Aspasia for the Peloponnesian War. He claims that the Megarian decree of Pericles, which excluded Megara from trade with Athens or its allies, was retaliation for prostitutes being kidnapped from the house of Aspasia by Megarians.^[8] Aristophanes' portrayal of Aspasia as responsible, from personal motives, for the outbreak of the war with Sparta may reflect memory of the earlier episode involving Miletus and Samos.^[25] Plutarch reports also the taunting comments of other comic poets, such as Eupolis and Cratinus.^[13] According to Podlecki, Douris appears to have propounded the view that Aspasia instigated both the Samian and Peloponnesian Wars.^[26] Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Acharnians in Greek The Acharnians (Ancient Greek: / AkharneÄ©s) is a comedic play by the ancient Greek satirist Aristophanes. ... Sketch of Aristophanes Aristophanes (Greek: , c. ... The Megarian Decree was a set of economic sanctions levied upon Megara circa 433 BC by the Athenian Empire shortly before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. ... Megara (Greek: Μέγαρα; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is an ancient city in Attica, Greece. ... Coordinates 37°4′ N 22°26′ E Country Greece Periphery Peloponnese Prefecture Laconia Population 18,184 source (2001) Area 84. ... Eupolis (c. ... Cratinus (c. ... Douris (Greek: Δούρις) (ca. ...

Aspasia was labeled the "New Omphale",^[η] "Deianira",^[η] "Hera"^[θ] and "Helen".^[ι][27] Further attacks on Pericles' relationship with Aspasia are reported by Athenaeus.^[28] Even Pericles' own son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father about his domestic affairs.^[22] In Greek mythology, Omphale was a queen or princess of Lydia. ... Guido Reni, Abduction of Deianira, 1620-21, Louvre Museum. ... In the Olympian pantheon of classical Greek Mythology, Hera (IPA pronunciation: ; Greek or ) was the wife and older sister of Zeus. ... In Greek mythology, Helen (Greek: , HelénÄ“), better known as Helen of Troy, was the daughter of Zeus and Leda and the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. ... Athenaeus (ca. ... Xanthippus was a Greek (possibly Spartan) mercenary general hired by the Carthaginians to aid in their war against the Romans during the First Punic War. ...

Later years and death

Bust of Pericles, Altes Museum (Old Museum), Berlin

In 429 BC, Pericles witnessed the death of his sister and of both his legitimate sons from his first wife, Xanthippus and his beloved Paralus, in the Plague of Athens. With his morale undermined, he burst into tears, and not even Aspasia's companionship could console him. Just before his death, the Athenians allowed a change in the citizenship law of 451 BC that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, a citizen and legitimate heir,^[29] a decision all the more striking in considering that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.^[30] Pericles died of the disease in the autumn of 429 BC. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (997x1264, 162 KB) Summary Photo by User:Adam Carr, May 2006 Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (997x1264, 162 KB) Summary Photo by User:Adam Carr, May 2006 Licensing I, the creator of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. ... Berlin, Old Museum, June 2003 The Altes Museum or Old Museum was originally for the Prussian Royal familys art collection, built in Berlin in a neoclassical style by architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel between 1823 and 1830. ... Berlin is the capital city and one of the sixteen states of the Federal Republic of Germany. ... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC - 420s BC - 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC Years: 434 BC 433 BC 432 BC 431 BC 430 BC - 429 BC - 428 BC 427 BC... Paralus is A titular see, suffragan of Cabasa in Ægyptus Secunda. ... The city-state of Athens in ancient Greece was hit by a devastating epidemic, known as the Plague of Athens, during the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC) when an Athenian victory still seemed within reach. ...

Plutarch cites Aeschines Socraticus, who wrote a dialogue on Aspasia (now lost), to the effect that after Pericles's death Aspasia lived with Lysicles, an Athenian general and democratic leader, with whom she had another son; and that she made him the first man at Athens.^[β][13] Lysicles was killed in action in 428 BC.^[31][32] With Lysicles' death the contemporaneous record ends.^[16] It is unknown, for example, if she were alive when her son, Pericles, was elected general or when he was executed after the Battle of Arginusae. The time of her death that most historians give (c. 401 BC-400 BC) is based on the assessment that Aspasia died before the execution of Socrates in 399 BC, a chronology which is implied in the structure of Aeschines' Aspasia.^[1][3] Aeschines (c. ... The term dialogue (or dialog) expresses basically reciprocal conversation between two or more persons. ... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC - 420s BC - 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC Years: 433 BC 432 BC 431 BC 430 BC 429 BC - 428 BC - 427 BC 426 BC... Combatants Sparta Athens Commanders Callicratidas† 8 generals Strength 120 ships 155 ships Casualties 70 ships 25 ships The naval Battle of Arginusae took place in 406 BC during the Peloponnesian War just east of the island of Lesbos. ... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC - 400s BC - 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC Years: 406 BC 405 BC 404 BC 403 BC 402 BC - 401 BC - 400 BC 399 BC... The Celtics claim Vienna, Austria. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC - 390s BC - 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC Years: 404 BC 403 BC 402 BC 401 BC 400 BC - 399 BC - 398 BC 397 BC...

References in philosophical works

Ancient philosophical works

Aspasia appears in the philosophical writings of Plato, Xenophon, Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes. Some scholars argue that Plato was impressed by her intelligence and wit and based his character Diotima in the Symposium on her, while others suggest that Diotima was in fact a historical figure.^[33][34] According to Charles Kahn, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania, Diotima is in many respects Plato's response to Aeschines' Aspasia.^[35] Xenophon, Greek historian Xenophon (In Greek , c. ... Portrait bust of Antisthenes Engraving of Antisthenes. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Symposium is a dialogue by Plato, written soon after 385 BCE. It is a philosophical discussion on the nature of love, taking the form of a series of speeches, both satirical and serious, given by a group of men at a symposion or drinking party at the house of... This article is about the private university in Philadelphia. ...

In Menexenus, Plato satirizes Aspasia's relationship with Pericles,^[36] and quotes Socrates as claiming ironically that she was a trainer of many orators. Socrates' intention is to cast aspersions on Pericles' rhetorical fame, claiming, also ironically, that since the Athenian statesman was educated by Aspasia, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon.^[37] He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries' veneration of Pericles.^[38] Kahn maintains that Plato has taken from Aeschines the motif of Aspasia as teacher of rhetoric for Pericles and Socrates.^[35] Plato's Aspasia and Aristophanes' Lysistrata are two apparent exceptions to the rule of women's incapacity as orators, though these fictional characters tell us nothing about the actual status of women in Athens.^[39] As Martha L. Rose, Professor of History at Truman State University, explains, "only in comedy do dogs litigate, birds govern, or women declaim".^[40] The Menexenus is a Socratic dialogue of Plato, traditionally included in the seventh tetralogy along with the Greater and Lesser Hippias and the Ion. ... Rhetoric (from Greek , rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is generally understood to be the art or technique of persuasion through the use of oral or written language; however, this definition of rhetoric has been contested since rhetoric emerged as a field of study in Universities. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Lysistrata (Attic: Λυσιστράτη, Doric: Λυσιστράτα), Aristophanes anti-war comedy, written in 411 BC, has female characters, led by the eponymous Lysistrata, barricading the public funds building and withholding sex from their husbands to secure peace and end the Peloponnesian War. ... Truman State University is a public liberal arts and sciences university in the U.S. state of Missouri. ...

Xenophon mentions Aspasia twice in his Socratic writings: in Memorabilia and in Oeconomicus. In both cases her advice is recommended to Critobulus by Socrates. In Memorabilia Socrates quotes Aspasia as saying that the matchmaker should report truthfully on the good characteristics of the man.^[41] In Oeconomicus Socrates defers to Aspasia as more knowledgeable about household management and the economic partnership between husband and wife.^[42] Also known by the Greek tiltle Apomnemoneumata, the alternate (and more accurate) Latin translation Commentarii, and a variety of English translations (Recollections, Memoirs, etc. ... Conversations of Socrates, Penguin Classics edition of Xenophons Socratic dialogues including the Oeconomicus, edited by Robin Waterfield The Oeconomicus by Xenophon is a Socratic dialogue principally about household management and agriculture. ...

Painting of Hector Leroux (1682 - 1740), which portrays Pericles and Aspasia admiring the gigantic statue of Athena in Phidias' studio

Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes each named a Socratic dialogue after Aspasia (though neither survives except in fragments). Our major sources for Aeschines Socraticus' Aspasia are Athenaeus, Plutarch, and Cicero. In the dialogue, Socrates recommends that Callias send his son Hipponicus to Aspasia for instructions. When Callias recoils at the notion of a female teacher, Socrates notes that Aspasia had favorably influenced Pericles and, after his death, Lysicles. In a section of the dialogue, preserved in Latin by Cicero, Aspasia figures as a "female Socrates", counseling first Xenophon's wife and then Xenophon himself (the Xenophon in question is not the famous historian) about acquiring virtue through self-knowledge.^[43][35] Aeschines presents Aspasia as a teacher and inspirer of excellence, connecting these virtues with her status as hetaira.^[44] According to Kahn, every single episode in Aeschines' Aspasia is not only fictitious but incredible.^[45] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (870x551, 90 KB) Summary Painting of the 18th century of le Roux, portraying Pericles and Aspasia Intellectual property rights expired after all these centuries! Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (870x551, 90 KB) Summary Painting of the 18th century of le Roux, portraying Pericles and Aspasia Intellectual property rights expired after all these centuries! Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other... Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema Phidias (or Pheidias) (in ancient Greek, ) (c. ... Socratic dialogue (Greek Σωκρατικός λόγος or Σωκρατικός διάλογος), is a prose literary form developed in Greece at the turn of the fourth century BCE, preserved today in the dialogues of Plato and the Socratic works of Xenophon - either dramatic or narrative - in which characters discuss moral and philosophical problems. ... Cicero at about age 60, from an ancient marble bust Marcus Tullius Cicero (IPA: ; Latin pronunciation:  ; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator, statesman, political theorist, lawyer and philosopher of Ancient Rome. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ...

Of Antisthenes' Aspasia only two or three quotations are extant.^[1] This dialogue contains much slander, but also anecdotes pertaining to Pericles' biography.^[46] Antisthenes appears to have attacked not only Aspasia, but the entire family of Pericles, including his sons. The philosopher believes that the great statesman chose the life of pleasure over virtue.^[47] Thus, Aspasia is presented as the personification of the life of sexual indulgence.^[44]

Modern literature

Self-portrait Marie Bouliard, as Aspasia, 1794

Aspasia appears in several significant works of modern literature. Her romantic attachment with Pericles has inspired some of the most famous novelists and poets of the last centuries. In particular the romanticists of the 19th century and the historical novelists of the 20th century found in their story an inexhaustible source of inspiration. In 1835 Lydia Child, an American abolitionist, novelist, and journalist, published Philothea, a classical romance set in the days of Pericles and Aspasia. This book is regarded as the most successful and elaborate of the author's productions, because the female characters, especially Aspasia, are portrayed with great beauty and delicacy.^[48] Image File history File links Aspasia_painting. ... Image File history File links Aspasia_painting. ... Marie-Geneviève Bouliard, French painter, born Paris, 1763; died Saône-et-Loire, 1825. ... A novel (from French nouvelle Italian novella, new) is an extended, generally fictional narrative, typically in prose. ... The Chinese poem Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by Emperor Gaozong (Song Dynasty) Poetry (from the Greek , poiesis, making or creating) is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. ... Romanticism is an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. ... A historical novel is a novel in which the story is set among historical events, or more generally, in which the time of the action predates the lifetime of the author. ... Lydia Child Lydia Maria Child (February 11, 1802 – July 7, 1880 in Wayland, Massachusetts) was an American abolitionist, womens rights activist, opponent of American expansionism, Indian rights activist, novelist, and journalist. ... This English poster depicting the horrific conditions on slave ships was influential in mobilizing public opinion against slavery. ...

In 1836 Walter Savage Landor, an English writer and poet, published Pericles and Aspasia, one of his most famous books. Pericles and Aspasia is a rendering of classical Athens through a series of imaginary letters, which contain numerous poems. The letters are frequently unfaithful to actual history but attempt to capture the spirit of the Age of Pericles.^[49] Robert Hamerling is another novelist and poet who was inspired by Aspasia's personality. In 1876 he published his novel Aspasia, a book about the manners and morals of the Age of Pericles and a work of cultural and historical interest. Giacomo Leopardi, an Italian poet influenced by the movement of romanticism, published a group of five poems known as the circle of Aspasia. These Leopardi poems were inspired by his painful experience of desperate and unrequited love for a woman named Fanny Targioni Tozzetti. Leopardi called this woman Aspasia, after the companion of Pericles.^[50] Walter Savage Landor (January 30, 1775 - September 17, 1864), English writer, eldest son of Walter Landor and his wife Elizabeth Savage, was born at Warwick. ... The Age of Pericles is the term used to denote the historical period in Ancient Greece lasting roughly from the end of the Persian Wars to either the death of Pericles or the end of the Peloponnesian War. ... Robert Hamerling (March 24, 1830 - July 13, 1889), Austrian poet, was born at Kirchenberg-am-Walde in Lower Austria, of humble parentage. ... Giacomo Leopardi, Count (June 29, 1798 – June 14, 1837) is generally considered, along with such figures as Dante, Ariosto and Tasso, to be among Italys greatest poets and one of its greatest thinkers. ...

In 1918, novelist and playwright George Cram Cook produced his first full-length play, The Athenian Women, which portrays Aspasia leading a strike for peace.^[51] Cook combined an anti-war theme with a Greek setting.^[52] American writer Gertrude Atherton in The Immortal Marriage (1927) treats the story of Pericles and Aspasia and illustrates the period of the Samian War, the Peloponnesian War and the Plague of Athens. Template:Unsourced A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is someone who writes dramatic literature or drama. ... Romeo and Juliet by Ford Madox Brown A play, written by a playwright, or dramatist, is a form of literature, almost always consisting of dialog between characters, and intended for performance rather than reading. ... Gertrude Atherton, American writer Gertrude Franklin Horn Atherton (1857–1948) was an American writer. ...

Fame and assessments

Aspasia's name is closely connected with Pericles' glory and fame.^[53] Plutarch accepts her as a significant figure both politically and intellectually and expresses his admiration for a woman who "managed as she pleased the foremost men of the state, and afforded the philosophers occasion to discuss her in exalted terms and at great length".^[13] The biographer says that Aspasia became so renowned that even Cyrus the Younger, who went to war with the King Artaxerxes II of Persia, gave her name to one of his concubines, who before was called Milto. After Cyrus had fallen in battle, this woman was carried captive to the King and acquired a great influence with him.^[13] Lucian calls Aspasia a "model of wisdom", "the admired of the admirable Olympian" and lauds "her political knowledge and insight, her shrewdness and penetration".^[54] A Syriac text, according to which Aspasia composed a speech and instructed a man to read it for her in the courts, confirms Aspasia's rhetorical fame.^[55] Aspasia is said by the Suda, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, to have been "clever with regards to words," a sophist, and to have taught rhetoric.^[56] Cyrus the Younger, son of Darius II and Parysatis, was a Persian prince and general. ... Artaxerxes II Memnon (c. ... Lucian Lucian of Samosata (Greek, Λουκιανὸς Σαμοσατεύς, Latin, Lucianus; c. ... Syriac ( Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language that was once spoken across much of the Fertile Crescent. ... Suda (Σουδα or alternatively Suidas) is a massive 10th century Byzantine Greek historical encyclopædia of the ancient Mediterranean world. ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... Sophism (gr. ...

On the basis of such assessments, researchers such as Cheryl Glenn, Professor at the Pennsylvania State University, argue that Aspasia seems to have been the only woman in classical Greece to have distinguished herself in the public sphere and must have influenced Pericles in the composition of his speeches.^[57] Some scholars believe that Aspasia opened an academy for young women of good families or even invented the Socratic method.^[58][57] However, Robert W. Wallace, Professor of classics at Northwestern University, underscores that "we cannot accept as historical the joke that Aspasia taught Pericles how to speak and hence was a master rhetorician or philosopher". According to Wallace, the intellectual role Aspasia was given by Plato may have derived from comedy.^[5] Kagan describes Aspasia as "a beautiful, independent, brilliantly witty young woman capable of holding her own in conversation with the best minds in Greece and of discussing and illuminating any kind of question with her husband".^[59] Roger Just, a classicist and Professor of social anthropology at the University of Kent, believes that Aspasia was an exceptional figure, but her example alone is enough to underline the fact that any woman who was to become the intellectual and social equal of a man would have to be a hetaira.^[9] According to Sr. Prudence Allen, a philosopher and seminary professor, Aspasia moved the potential of women to become philosophers one step forward from the poetic inspirations of Sappho.^[36] The Pennsylvania State University (commonly known as Penn State) is a state-related, land-grant university. ... Socratic Method (or method of elenchos or Socratic debate) is a dialectic method of inquiry, largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts and first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. ... Northwestern University is a prestigious private, coeducational, non-sectarian research university, located in Evanston and Chicago, Illinois. ... Greek comedy is the name given to a wide genre of theatrical plays written, and performed, in Ancient Greece. ... Classics, particularly within the Western University tradition, when used as a singular noun, means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of Greek and Roman culture during the time frame known as classical antiquity. ... Cultural anthropology, also called social anthropology or socio-cultural anthropology, is one of four commonly recognized fields of anthropology, the holistic study of humanity. ... The University of Kent is a plate glass campus university in Kent, England. ... This article refers to the Greek poet. ...

Historicity of her life

The main problem remains, as Jona Lendering points out, that most of the things we know about Aspasia are based on mere hypothesis. Thucydides does not mention her; our only sources are the untrustworthy representations and speculations recorded by men in literature and philosophy, who did not care at all about Aspasia as a historical character.^[5][39] Therefore, in the figure of Aspasia, we get a range of contradictory portrayals; she is either a good wife like Theano or some combination of courtesan and prostitute like Thargelia.^[60] This is the reason modern scholars express their scepticism about the historicity of Aspasia's life.^[5] Jona Lendering is a Dutch historian and the author of books on antiquity, Dutch history and modern management. ... Bust of Thucydides residing in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. ... This article is about the mythological Theano. ... Thargelia (Greek: ) was a renowned hetaira (professional high-class entertainer, something like a courtesan) in ancient Greece. ...

According to Wallace, "for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality".^[5] Hence, Madeleine M. Henry, Professor of Classics at Iowa State University, maintains that "biographical anecdotes that arose in antiquity about Aspasia are wildly colorful, almost completely unverifiable, and still alive and well in the twentieth century". She finally concludes that "it is possible to map only the barest possibilities for [Aspasia's] life".^[61] According to Charles W. Fornara and Loren J. Samons II, Professors of Classics and history, "it may well be, for all we know, that the real Aspasia was more than a match for her fictional counterpart".^[27] Fountain of Four Seasons by Christian Petersen with the Campanile in the background Iowa State University (ISU) is a public land-grant and space-grant university located in Ames, Iowa. ...

See also

• Ancient philosophy
• Prostitution in Ancient Greece
• Timeline of Ancient Greece

This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see Pre-Socratic philosophy. ... Courtesan and her client, Attican Pelike with red figures by Polygnotus, c. ... This is a timeline of ancient Greece. ...

Notes

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Aspasia

Citations

References

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Further reading

External links

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