Assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. This article covers educational assessment including the work of institutional researchers, but the term applies to other fields as well including health and finance. Overview Institutional research is a broad category of work done at colleges and universities to inform campus decision making and planning in areas such as admissions, financial aid, curriculum, enrollment, staffing, student life, finance, facilities, athletics, and alumni relations. ...

History of assessment

The earliest recorded example of academic assessment arose in China in 206BC when the Han dynasty sought to introduce testing to assist with the selection of civil servants. The objectivity of the assessment was questionable (it being oral and still subject to the whims of the assessors) but it was the first example of introducing merit to the selection process in place of favouritism. In 622AD the Tang dynasty administered formal written exams to candidates for the civil service; these exams lasted for several days and had a pass rate of 2% - and successful candidates were then subjected to an oral assessment by the Emperor. In Europe, tests were used during the Middle Ages to aid the selection of priests and knights, and school children were tested for their knowledge of the catechism. Oral exams were used to assess knowledge and skills demonstrations were used to meassure practical abilities. The University of Paris first introduced formal examinations during the 12 Century. These exams were theological oral disputations. Questions were known in advance, requiring students to memorise and regurgitate answers. In the 1740s, Cambridge University began using (oral) examinations to compare students, similar to the earlier Chinese tests. During the 18th Century, Cambridge and Oxford began testing students' mathematical abilities using written tests and thereafter the use of paper for assessment spread to all subjects. The Unitied States introduced formal written examinations in the 1830s in an attempt to reduce the subjectivity of assessment. Horace Mann introduced written tests in the Boston Public Schools to compare school performance. However, the United States main contribution to the history of testing came during the First World War when the US Army introduced large scale IQ testing to assign massive numbers of recruits to positions within the Army. The Army Alpha, as it was known, consisted of multiple choice questions and was administered to over two million recruits.

Types of assessment

Assessments can be classified in many different ways. The most important distinctions are: (1) formative and summative; (2) objective and subjective; (3) criterion-referenced and norm-referenced; and (4) informal and formal.

Formative and summative assessments

There are two main types of assessment:

• Summative Assessment - Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade.
• Formative Assessment - Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or project. Formative assessment, also referred to as educative assessment, is used to aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing feedback on a student's work, and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes.

Summative and formative assessment are referred to in a learning context as "assessment of learning" and "assessment for learning" respectively. A peer group is a group of people of approximately the same age, social status, and interests. ...

A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment measures a student's current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying a suitable program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves students assessing themselves. Forward-looking assessment asks those being assessed to consider themselves in hypothetical future situations.

Objective and subjective assessment

Assessment (either summative or formative) can be objective or subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one current answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays. Objective assessment is becoming more popular due to the increased use of online assessment (e-assessment) since this form of questioning is well-suited to computerisation. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... e-assessment In its broadest sense, e-assessment is the use of information technology for any assessment-related activity. ...

Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced assessments

Criterion-referenced assessment, typically using a criterion-referenced test, as the name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and objective) criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a person’s competence (whether s/he can do something). The best known example of criterion-referenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers are measured against a range of explicit criteria (such as “Not endangering other road users”). Norm-referenced assessment (colloquially known as "grading on the curve"), typically using a norm-referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is relative to the student body undertaking the assessment. It is effectively a way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best known example of norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass (“passing” in this context means being accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to year, depending on the quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not vary from year to year (unless the criteria change). A test is said to be criterion-referenced when provision is made for translating the test score into a statement about the behavior to be expected of a person with that score. ... In education, grading on a bell curve is grading a group of examinations first using a numerical point system, then assigning the highest grade an A, regardless of its numerical grade (which can be failing). ... A test is said to be norm-referenced when the translated score tells where the person stands in some population of persons who have taken the test. ...

Compares the various grading methods in a normal distribution. Includes: Standard deviations, cummulative precentages, percentile equivalents, Z-scores, T-scores, standard nine, percent in stanine.

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1200x687, 38 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1200x687, 38 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Informal and formal assessment

Assessment can be either formal or informal. Formal assessment usually a written document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. Formal assessment is given a numerical score or grade based on student performance. Whereas, informal assessment does not contribute to a student's final grade. It usually occurs in a more casual manner, including observation, inventories, participation, peer and self evaluation, and discussion.

Standards of quality

The considerations of validity and reliability typically are viewed as essential elements for determining the quality of any assessment. However, professional and practitioner associations frequently have placed these concerns within broader contexts when developing standards and making overall judgments about the quality of any assessment as a whole within a given context. In statistics a valid measure is one which is measuring what it is supposed to measure. ... The mathematical foundations of statistical reliability are probability and statistics. ... Quality refers to the distinctive characteristics or properties of a person, object, process or other thing. ... A standards organization, also referred to as standards development organization or SDO, is any entity whose primary activities are developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising, amending, reissuing, interpreting, or otherwise maintaining standards that address the interests of a wide base of users outside the standards development organization. ...

Testing standards

In the field of psychometrics, the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing ^[1] place standards about validity and reliability, along with errors of measurement and related considerations under the general topic of test construction, evaluation and documentation. The second major topic covers standards related to fairness in testing, including fairness in testing and test use, the rights and responsibilities of test takers, testing individuals of diverse linguistic backgrounds, and testing individuals with disabilities. The third and final major topic covers standards related to testing applications, including the responsibilities of test users, psychological testing and assessment, educational testing and assessment, testing in employment and credentialing, plus testing in program evaluation and public policy. For information regarding the parapsychology phenomenon of distance knowledge, see psychometry. ... The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing is a set of testing standards developed jointly by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). ... Various meters Measurement is the process of estimating the ratio of a magnitude of a quantity to a unit of the same type. ... Lady Justice - allegory of Justice as woman with sword and with book - statue at court building. ... A right is the power or privilege to which one is justly entitled or a thing to which one has a just claim. ... The word responsibility means the obligation to answer for actions. ... Diversity is the presence of a wide range of variation in the qualities or attributes under discussion. ... A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of small samples of behavior in order to infer larger generalizations about a given individual. ... In education, certification, counselling, and many other fields, a test or an exam (short for examination) is a tool or technique intended to measure students expression of knowledge, skills and/or abilities. ... Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ... A professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation often called simply certification or qualification is a designation earned by a person to certify that he is qualified to perform a job. ... Program evaluation is essentially a set of philosophies and techniques to determine if a program works. It is a practice field that has emerged, particularly in the USA, as a disciplined way of assessing the merit, value, and worth of projects and programs. ... Standardized testing is used as a public policy strategy to establish stronger accountability measures for public education. ...

Evaluation standards

In the field of evaluation, and in particular educational evaluation, the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation ^[2] has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards ^[3] was published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition) ^[4] was published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards ^[5] was published in 2003. Evaluation is the systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone. ... By evaluating the information above I have found out that there are many ways of developing tourism in the world and how tourism industry works and its background about tourism. ... The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation is a coalition of major professional associations formed in 1975 to help improve the quality of evaluation. ...

Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance.

Validity and reliability

A valid assessment is one which measures what it is intended to measure. For example, it would not be valid to assess driving skills through a written test alone. A more valid way of assessing driving skills would be through a combination of tests that help determine what a driver knows, such as through a written test of driving knowledge, and what a driver is able to do, such as through a performance assessment of actual driving. Teachers frequently complain that some examinations do not properly assess the syllabus upon which the examination is based; they are, effectively, questioning the validity of the exam. In statistics a valid measure is one which is measuring what it is supposed to measure. ... Syllabus (plural syllabi or syllabuses) is a document with an outline and summary of topics to be covered in a course. ...

Reliability relates to the consistency of an assessment. A reliable assessment is one which consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar) cohort of students. Various factors affect reliability – including ambiguous questions, too many options within a question paper, vague marking instructions and poorly trained markers. The mathematical foundations of statistical reliability are probability and statistics. ...

A good assessment has both a validity and reliability, plus the other quality attributes noted above for a specific context and purpose. In practice, an assessment is rarely totally valid or totally reliable. A ruler which is marked wrong will always give the same (wrong) measurements. It is very reliable, but not very valid. Asking random individuals to tell the time without looking at a clock or watch is sometimes used as an example of an assessment which is valid, but not reliable. The answers will vary between individuals, but the average answer is probably close to the actual time. In many fields, such as medical research, educational testing, and psychology, there will often be a trade-off between reliability and validity. A history test written for high validity will have many essay and fill-in-the-blank questions. It will be a good measure of mastery of the subject, but difficult to score completely accurately. A history test written for high reliability will be entirely multiple choice. It isn't as good at measuring knowledge of history, but can easily be scored with great precision.

Notes and references

1. ↑  The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
2. ↑  Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation
3. ↑  Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (1988). The Personnel Evaluation Standards: How to Assess Systems for Evaluating Educators. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
4. ↑  Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (1994). The Program Evaluation Standards, 2nd Edition. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
5. ↑  Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (2003). The Student Evaluation Standards: How to Improve Evaluations of Students. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.

See also

• Course evaluations is a series of questions in order to evaluate the instruction of a given course.
• Evaluation is the process of looking at what is being assessed to make sure the right areas are being considered.
• Grading is the process of assigning a (possibly mutually exclusive) ranking to learners.
• Educational Measurement is a process of assessment or an evaluation in which the objective is to quantify level of attainment or competence within a specified domain. See the Rasch model for measurement for elaboration on the conceptual requirements of such processes, including those pertaining to grading and use of raw scores from assessments.
• Educational evaluation deals specifically with evaluation as it applies to an educational setting. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is a government program that requires educational evaluation.
• Educational psychology
• Electronic portfolio is a personal digital record containing information such as a collection of artifacts or evidence demonstrating what one knows and can do.
• Health Impact Assessment loooks at the potential health impacts of policies, programs and projects.
• Program evaluation is essentially a set of philosophies and techniques to determine if a program 'works'.
• Social Impact Assessment looks at the possible social impacts of proposed new infrastructure projects, natural resource projects, or development activities.
• Standardized testing is any test that is used across a variety of schools or other situations.

Evaluation is the systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone. ... Various meters Measurement is the process of estimating the ratio of a magnitude of a quantity to a unit of the same type. ... Rasch models are probabilistic measurement models which find their application primarily in psychological and attainment assessment, and are being increasingly used in other areas, including the health profession. ... By evaluating the information above I have found out that there are many ways of developing tourism in the world and how tourism industry works and its background about tourism. ... Signing ceremony at Hamilton High School in Hamilton, Ohio. ... INTRODUCTION: Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. ... In the context of education and learning, an Electronic portfolio, normally known as an ePortfolio or a digital portfolio, is a portfolio based on electronic media and services. ... Health Impact Assessment (HIA) is defined as a combination of procedures, methods and tools by which a policy, program or project may be judged as to its potential effects on the health of a population, and the distribution of those effects within the population. ... Program evaluation is essentially a set of philosophies and techniques to determine if a program works. It is a practice field that has emerged, particularly in the USA, as a disciplined way of assessing the merit, value, and worth of projects and programs. ... // Introduction and definitions Social Impact Assessment first emerged in the 1970s, as a way to assess the impacts on society of certain development schemes and projects - for example, new roads, industrial facilities, mines, dams, ports, airports, and other infrastructure projects. ... Standardized testing is: in theory: a tool to ensure that student knowledge and aptitude in a given subject are examined with the same criteria across different schools. ...

External links

• Assessment in Higher Education web site.
• Edutopia: Assessment Overview A collection of media and articles on the topic of assessment from The George Lucas Educational Foundation
• The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
• Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation
• Testing and Assessment Glossary of Terms