In the physical sciences, atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat and energy transformations in the earth’s atmospheric system. Following the fundamental laws of classical thermodynamics, atmospheric thermodynamics studies such phenomenon as properties of moist air, formation of clouds, atmospheric convection, boundary layer meteorology, and vertical stabilities in the atmosphere. Atmospheric thermodynamic diagrams are used as tools in the forecasting of storm development. Atmospheric thermodynamics forms a basis for cloud microphysics and convection parameterizations in numerical weather models, and is used in many climate considerations, including convective-equilibrium climate models. this is a realy stupid subject Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science, and science (generally), that study non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. ... In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is defined as energy in transit. ... ass hole ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Parametrization within a climate model refers to the method of replacing processes that are too small-scale or complex to be physically represented in the model by a simplified process. ...

Overview

Atmospheric thermodynamics focuses on water and its transformations. Areas of study include the law of energy conservation, the ideal gas law, specific heat capacities, adiabatic processes (in which entropy is conserved), and moist adiabatic processes. Most of tropospheric gases are treated as ideal gases and water vapor is considered as one of the most important trace components of air. Isotherms of an ideal gas The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. ... Ice melting - classic example of entropy increasing[1] described in 1862 by Rudolf Clausius as an increase in the disgregation of the molecules of the body of ice. ... Water vapor, also aqueous vapor, is the gas phase of water. ...

Advanced topics are phase transitions of water, homogeneous and inhomogeneous nucleation, effect of dissolved substances on cloud condensation, role of supersaturation on formation of ice crystals and cloud droplets. Considerations of moist air and cloud theories typically involve various temperatures, such as equivalent potential temperature, wet-bulb and virtual temperatures. Connected areas are energy, momentum, and mass transfer, turbulence interaction between air particles in clouds, convection, dynamics of tropical cyclones, and large scale dynamics of the atmosphere. In physics, a phase transition is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase to another. ... Mass transfer is the phrase commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve molecular and convective transport of atoms and molecules within physical systems. ...

The major role of atmospheric thermodynamics is expressed in terms of adiabatic and diabatic forces acting on air parcel included in primitive equations of air motion either as grid resolved or subgrid parameterizations. These equations form a basis for the numerical weather and climate predictions. The primitive equations are a version of the Navier-Stokes equations which describe hydrodynamical flow on the sphere under the assumptions that vertical motion is much smaller than horizontal motion (hydrostasis) and that the fluid layer depth is small compared to the radius of the sphere. ...

History

In the early 1800s thermodynamicists such as Sadi Carnot, Rudolf Clausius, and Emile Clapeyron worked to developed and to build mathematical models on the dynamics of bodies fluids and vapors related to the combustion and pressure cycles of atmospheric steam engines; one example is the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. In 1873, thermodynamicist Willard Gibbs published "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids." Sadi Carnot Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (June 1, 1796 - August 24, 1832) was a French mathematician and engineer who gave the first successful theoretical account of heat engines, the Carnot cycle, and laid the foundations of the second law of thermodynamics. ... Rudolf Clausius - physicist and mathematician Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius (January 2, 1822 – August 24, 1888), was a German physicist and mathematician. ... Emile_Clapeyron Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron (February 26, 1799 - January 28, 1864) was an French engineer and physicist, considered as one of the founders of thermodynamics. ... The Clausius-Clapeyron relation, in thermodynamics, is a way of characterizing the phase transition between two states of matter, such as solid and liquid. ... Josiah Willard Gibbs (February 11, 1839 – April 28, 1903) was an American mathematical physicist who contributed much of the theoretical foundation that led to the development of chemical thermodynamics and was one of the founders of vector analysis. ...

Thermodynamic diagram discovered in the 19th century is still used to calculate quantities such as convective available potential energy or air stability.

These sorts of foundations naturally began to be applied towards the development of theoretical models of atmospheric thermodynamics which drew the attention of the best minds. Papers on atmospheric thermodynamics appeared in the 1860s that treated such topics as dry and moist adiabatic processes. In 1884 Heinrich Hertz devised first atmospheric thermodynamic diagram (emagram) ^[1]. Pseudo-adiabatic process was coined by von Bezold describing air as it is lifted, expands, cools, and eventually precipitates its water vapor; in 1888 he published voluminous work entitled "On the thermodynamics of the atmosphere" ^[2] . Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (838x747, 28 KB) Made it myself I, the creator of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (838x747, 28 KB) Made it myself I, the creator of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (February 22, 1857 - January 1, 1894) was the German physicist and mechanician for whom the hertz, an SI unit, is named. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Johann Friedrich Wilhelm von Bezold (born June 21, 1837, Munich; died February 17, 1907) was a German physicist and meteorologist. ...

In 1911 von Alfred Wegener published a book "Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre", Leipzig, J. A. Barth. From here the development of atmospheric thermodynamics as a branch of science began to take root. The term "atmospheric thermodynamics", itself, can be traced to Frank W. Verys 1919 publication: “The radiant properties of the earth from the standpoint of atmospheric thermodynamics” (Occasional scientific papers of the Westwood Astrophysical Observatory). By the late 1970s various textbooks on the subject began to appear. Today, atmospheric thermodynamics is an integral part of weather forecasting. Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift was widely ridiculed in his day Alfred Lothar Wegener (Berlin, November 1, 1880 – Greenland, November 2 or 3, 1930) was a German interdisciplinary scientist and meteorologist, who became famous for his theory of continental drift. ... Frank Washington Very (1852 – November 23, 1927) was a U.S. astronomer. ...

Chronology

• 1751 Charles Le Roy recognized dew point temperature as point of saturation of air
• 1782 Jacques Charles made hydrogen balloon flight measuring temperature and pressure in Paris
• 1784 Concept of variation of temperature with height was suggested
• 1801-1803 John Dalton developed his laws of pressures of vapours
• 1804 Joseph Luis Guy-Lussac made balloon ascent to study weather
• 1805 Pierre Simon Laplace developed his law of pressure variation with height
• 1841 James Pollard Espy publishes paper on convection theory of cyclone energy
• 1889 Herman von Helmholtz and John William von Bezold used the concept of potential temperature, von Bezold used adiabatic lapse rate and pseudoadiabat
• 1893 Richard Asman constructs first aerological sonde (pressure-temperature-humidity)
• 1894 John Wilhelm von Bezold used concept of equivalent temperature
• 1926 Sir Napier Shaw introduced tephigram
• 1933 Tor Bergeron published paper on "Physics of Clouds and Precipitation" describing precipitation from supercooled (due to condensational growth of ice crystals in presence of water drops)
• 1946 Vincent J. Schaeffer and Irving Langmuir performed the first cloud-seeding experiment
• 1986 K. Emanuel conceptualizes tropical cyclone as Carnot heat engine

Applications

Tropical cyclone Carnot cycle

Air is being moistened as it travels toward convective system. Ascending motion in a deep convective core produces air expansion, cooling, and condensation. Upper level outflow visible as an anvil cloud is eventually descending conserving mass (rysunek - Robert Simmon).

The thermodynamic structure of the hurricane can be modelled as a heat engine ^[3] running between sea temperature of about 300K and tropopause which has temperature of about 200K. Parcels of air traveling close to the surface take up moisture and warm, asceding air expands and cools releasing moisture (rain) during the condensation. This release of latent heat energy during the condensation provides mechanical energy for the hurricane. Both decreasing temperature of upper troposphere or increasing temperature of atmosphere close to the surface will increase on maximum winds observed in hurricanes. When applied to hurricane dynamics it defines Carnot heat engine cycle and predicts maximum hurricane intensity. Image File history File links Anvil_convection. ... Image File history File links Anvil_convection. ...

The Clausius-Clapeyron and global climate change

The Clausius Clapeyron equation governs the water-holding capacity of the atmosphere, which increases by about 7% per degree Celsius increase in temperature. Saturation water vapor pressure is given by

where e_s(T) is in hPa, and T is in Celsius. Neglecting weak dependence of numerator on temperature one notices that saturation water vapor pressure changes approximately exponentialy with T. Therefore, when temperature increases in the atmosphere due to greenhouse gases the absolute humidity should go up. This results is one of the most celebrated statements in the debate about global climate change. However, this purely thermodynamic argument is subject of considerable debate because convective processes might cause extensive drying due to increased areas of subsidence, efficiency of precipitation could be influenced by the intensity of convection, and because cloud formation is related to relative humidity.

See also

Biological thermodynamics (Greek: bios = life and logikos = reason + Greek: thermos = heat and dynamics = power) is the study of energy transformation in the biological sciences. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Willard Gibbs - founder of chemical thermodynamics In thermodynamics, chemical thermodynamics is the mathematical study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. ... ass hole ... Cloud physics describes the area of study of physical processes that lead to the formation, growth and precipitation of clouds. ... Equilibrium Thermodynamics (Latin: aequalis = level and libra = weight or balance + Greek: thermos = heat and dynamis = power) is the systematic study of transformations of matter and energy in systems as they approach equilibrium. ... Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics concerned with studying time-dependent thermodynamic systems, irreversible transformations and open systems. ... Phenomenological thermodynamic is a branch of thermodynamics concerned with the study and analysis of actual phenomena with avoidance of full interpretation, explanation, and evaluation of microscopic, i. ... In psychology, psychodynamics is the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the subconscious level. ... Statistical mechanics is the application of statistics, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force. ... Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamics meaning power) is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics. ... In the natural sciences, thermoeconomics is the physics of economic value. ...

Special topics

• Lorentz, E. N., 1955, Available potential energy and the maintenance of the general circulation, Tellus, 7, 157-167.
• Emanuel, K, 1986, Part I. An air-sea interaction theory for tropical cyclones, J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 585, (energy cycle of the mature hurricane has been idealized here as Carnot engine that converts heat energy extracted from the ocean to mechanical energy).

References

External links

• Atmospheric Thermodynamics (part 1)
• Atmospheric Thermodynamics (part 2)