Aurangzeb (from Persian, اورنگ‌زیب Aurang means throne and Zaib meant beauty or ornament),(November 3, 1618 – March 3, 1707, also known as Alamgir I, was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1658 until 1707. He was a very controversial figure in South Asian history, and is considered a tyrant by most Hindus, Sikhs, and other non-Muslim Indians. An emperor is a (male) monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. ... The Mughal Empire, (Persian: دولتِ مغل) was an empire that at its greatest territorial extent ruled most of the Indian Subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, and parts of Afghanistan and Persia, between 1526 and 1707. ... November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 58 days remaining. ... Events March 8 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery). ... Dahod is a town in the Gujarat state of India. ... March 3 is the 62nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (63rd in leap years). ... Events January 1 - John V is crowned King of Portugal April 25 - Allied army is defeated by Bourbonic army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession. ... Muazzam Bahadur Shah (October 14, 1643 - February 1712), also known as Shah Alam I was a Mughal emperor of India from 1707 to 1712. ... Muazzam Bahadur Shah (October 14, 1643 - February 1712), also known as Shah Alam I was a Mughal emperor of India from 1707 to 1712. ... Azam Shah (1653 - 1707) was the Mogul emperor of India in 1707. ... Zeb-un-Nissa (Zebunnisa, Zebunnissa, Zaib-un-nissa, Zebunisa) (1637 - 1702) was the eldest daughter of the last of the major Mughal emperors, Aurangzeb Alamgir . ... Persian is a language spoken in Iran, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Bahrain, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Southern Russia, neighboring countries, and elsewhere. ... November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 58 days remaining. ... Events March 8 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery). ... March 3 is the 62nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (63rd in leap years). ... Events January 1 - John V is crowned King of Portugal April 25 - Allied army is defeated by Bourbonic army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession. ... The Mughal Empire, (Persian: دولتِ مغل) was an empire that at its greatest territorial extent ruled most of the Indian Subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, and parts of Afghanistan and Persia, between 1526 and 1707. ... This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word, see Hindu (disambiguation). ... A Sikh man wearing a turban The adherents of Sikhism are called Sikhs. ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Turkish:Müslüman, Persian:مسلمان, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of Islam. ...

Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb was remarkably pious and zealous. Strict adherence to Islam and Sharia (Islamic law)—as he interpreted them—were the foundations of his reign. He instituted these beliefs in the empire, abandoning the religious tolerance of his predecessors. During his reign, many Hindu temples were defaced and destroyed, and many non-Muslims (mostly Hindus) converted (widely believed forcibly) to Islam; the jizya, a head tax on non-Muslims, was reinstated during his rule. Islam (Arabic: ; ) is a monotheistic religion based on the Quran. ... Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to Islamic law. ... This article or section is missing references or citation of sources. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ) is a monotheistic religion based on the Quran. ... In states ruled by Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (Arabic: جزْية) is a per capita tax imposed on non-Muslim adult males. ...

This picture of Aurangzeb, and his unflinching use of vast military might in his goals, leaves him as one of the most controversial figures in Indian history. He ruled India for a period of 48 years (comparable to that of Akbar, regarded the greatest Mughal emperor); he also expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest extent, leaving only the south tip of the Indian subcontinent independent from Mughal rule. However, his constant policies of war left the empire dangerously overextended, isolated from its strong allies of Rajputs, and with a population that (except for the Muslim minority) expressed resent, if not outright rebellion, to his reign. Aurangzeb's successors lacked his strong hand in suppressing high levels of Mughal opposition, and the Hindu Maratha Confederacy mostly replaced Mughal rule during the rest of the 18th century. Nevertheless, Aurangzeb is generally regarded as the last "great" Mughal ruler, and his religious policies have added to Muslim-Hindu conflict in India, wielding influence even in modern times. Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (Persian: جلال الدین محمد اکبر), (alternative spellings include Jellaladin, Celalettin) also known as Akbar the Great (Akbār-e-Azam) (October 15, 1542 – October 27, 1605) was the son of Humayun whom he succeeded to become ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1556 until 1605. ... A Rajput (possibly from Sanskrit rāja-putra, son of a king) is a member of a prominent caste who live throughout northern and central India, primarily in the northwestern state of Rajasthan. ... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ...

Rise to throne

Early life

Aurangzeb (full name: Abu Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir --Persian: بو مظفر محی الدین محمد اورنگزیب عالمگیر ) was the third son of the fifth great Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (builder of the Taj Mahal), and Arjumand Banu Begum (also known as Mumtaz Mahal). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's childhood was spent as a kind of hostage at his grandfather Jahangir's court. Persian is a language spoken in Iran, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Bahrain, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Southern Russia, neighboring countries, and elsewhere. ... The Mughal Empire (alternative spelling Mogul, which is the origin of the word Mogul) of India was founded by Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. ... Shahbuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan (also spelled Shah Jehan, Shahjehan. ... The Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal (Hindi: , Persian & Urdu: ) is a monument located in Agra in India, constructed between 1631 and 1654 by a workforce of more than twenty thousand. ... Mumtaz Mahal Mumtaz Mahal (Persian: ممتاز محل, meaning beloved ornament of the palace; pronunciation //) is the common nickname of Arjumand Banu Begum, who was born April 1593 in Agra, India. ... Nuruddin Jahangir (Persian: نور الدین جہھانگر) (August 31, 1569 – October 28, 1627) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1605 until 1627. ...

After Jahangir's death in 1627, Aurangzeb returned to live with his parents. Shah Jahan followed the Mughal practice of assigning authority to his sons, and in 1634 made Aurangzeb Subahdar (governor) of the Deccan. He moved to Kirki, which in time he renamed Aurangabad. In 1637, he married, Rabia Daurrani – her tomb is in Aurangabad. During this period the Deccan was relatively peaceful. In the Mughal court, however, Shah Jahan began to show greater and greater favoritism to his eldest son Dara Shikoh. Events A Dutch ship makes the first recorded sighting of the coast of South Australia. ... Events Moses Amyrauts Traite de la predestination is published Curaçao captured by the Dutch Treaty of Polianovska First meeting of the Académie française The witchcraft affair at Loudun Jean Nicolet lands at Green Bay, Wisconsin Opening of Covent Garden Market in London English establish a settlement... Subahdar was a title given to governors of provinces in the times of the Mughal dynasty, now bestowed upon native officers in the Indian army holding rank equivalent to an English captaincy. ... The Deccan Plateau is a vast plateau in India, encompassing most of Central and Southern India. ... Aurangabad (औरंगाबाद, from Persian اورنگ‌آباد meaning Built by the Throne, named after Mughal Emporer Aurangazeb) is a city and district in Maharashtra, India. ... Events February 3 - Tulipmania collapses in Netherlands by government order February 15 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor December 17 - Shimabara Rebellion erupts in Japan Pierre de Fermat makes a marginal claim to have proof of what would become known as Fermats last theorem. ... Dara Shikoh (1615–1659) was the eldest son of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaz Mahal. ...

In 1644, Aurangzeb's sister Jahanara Begum was accidentally burned in Agra. This event precipitated a family crisis which had political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure when returning to Agra three weeks after the event, rather than immediately returning after hearing of the accident. Shah Jahan dismissed him as the governor of Deccan. Aurangzeb later claimed (1654) to have resigned the post in protest of his father favoring Dara. // Events February to August - Explorer Abel Tasmans second expedition for the Dutch East India Company maps the north coast of Australia. ... Shahzadi (Imperial Princess) Jahanara Begum (April 2, 1614–September 16, 1681) was the eldest daughter of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. ... For other uses, see Agra (disambiguation). ... Events April 5 - Signing of the Treaty of Westminster, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. ...

Aurangzeb's fortunes continued to decline. In 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. After this incident, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat. He performed well and was rewarded. In 1647, Shah Jahan made him governor of Balkh and Badakhshan (near modern Turkmenistan and Afghanistan), replacing Aurangzeb's ineffective brother Murad Baksh. These areas were at the time under attack from a variety of forces. Aurangzeb's military skill proved successful, and the story of how he spread his prayer rug and prayed in the midst of battle brought him much fame. // Events January 10 - Archbishop Laud executed on Tower Hill, London. ... Gujarat (Gujarati: , Hindi: ,, IPA ; also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath). ... // Events March 14 - Thirty Years War: Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of Ulm. ... Today Balkh is a small town in the Province of Balkh, Afghanistan, about 20 kilometers northwest of the provincial capital, Mazar-e Sharif, and some 74 km (46 miles) south of the Amu Darya, the Oxus River of antiquity, of which a tributary formerly flowed past Balkh. ... Badakhshan is a region comprising parts of northeastern Afghanistan and of Tajikistan. ... Murad Baksh (died 1658) was the youngest son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal. ...

He was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh and began a protracted military struggle against the Safavid army in an effort to capture the city of Kandahar. He failed, and fell again into his father's disfavor. Multan (ملتان) is a city in the Punjab Province of Pakistan, and capital of Multan District. ... Sindh (Sind) (Sindhi: سنڌ ;Urdu: سندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis, Muhajirs and various other groups. ... The Safavids were a long-lasting Turkic-speaking Iranian dynasty that ruled from 1501 to 1736 and first established Shiite Islam as Persias official religion. ... For the 2001 movie by Mohsen Makhmalbaf, see Kandahar (film). ...

In 1652, Aurangzeb was again appointed governor of the Deccan. Both man and place had changed in the interim. The Deccan produced poor tax revenue for the Mughals. As a youth in his previous term, Aurangzeb ignored the problem, allowing state-sanctioned corruption and extortion to grow. This time Aurangzeb set about reforming the system, but his efforts often placed additional burdens on the locals, and were poorly received. // Events April 6 - Dutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp for the Dutch East India Company at the Cape of Good Hope, and founded Cape Town. ... The Deccan Plateau is a vast plateau in India, encompassing most of Central and Southern India. ...

It was during this second governorship that Aurangzeb first recounts destroying a Hindu temple. In addition, Aurangzeb's officers began treating non-Muslims harshly, and he defended these practices in letters to Shah Jahan's court. These practices would become themes in Aurangzeb's rule as emperor. This article or section is missing references or citation of sources. ...

In an effort to raise additional revenues, Aurangzeb attacked the border kingdoms of Golconda (1657), and Bijapur (1658). In both instances, Shah Jahan called off the attacks near the moment of Aurangzeb's triumph. Even at the time it was believed that the withdrawals had actually been ordered by Prince Dara, in Shah Jahan's name. Golconda is a ruined city and fortress 11 km west of the city of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh state, India. ... Events January 8 - Miles Sindercombe, would-be-assassin of Oliver Cromwell, and his group are captured in London February - Admiral Robert Blake defeats the Spanish West Indian Fleet in a battle over the seizure of Jamaica. ... Bijapur (Kannada: ವಿಜಾಪುರ) is a district headquarters of the Bijapur district in the state of Karnataka. ... Events January 13 - Edward Sexby, who had plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in Tower of London February 6 - Swedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross The Great Belt (Storebælt) in Denmark over frozen sea May 1 - Publication of Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and The Garden of Cyrus by...

War of succession

Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, and was widely reported to have died. With this news, the struggle for succession began. Aurangzeb's eldest brother, Dara Shikoh, was regarded as heir apparent, but the succession proved far from certain. When Shah Jahan supposedly died, his second son, Shah Shuja declared himself emperor in Bengal. Imperial armies sent by Dara and Shah Jahan soon restrained this effort, and Shuja retreated. Shahbuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan (also spelled Shah Jehan, Shahjehan. ... Events January 8 - Miles Sindercombe, would-be-assassin of Oliver Cromwell, and his group are captured in London February - Admiral Robert Blake defeats the Spanish West Indian Fleet in a battle over the seizure of Jamaica. ... Dara Shikoh (1615–1659) was the eldest son of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaz Mahal. ... Shah Shuja (born June 23, 1616—died 1660) was the second son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal. ... Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla, is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ...

Soon after, Shuja's youngest brother Murad Baksh, with secret promises of support from Aurangzeb, declared himself emperor in Gujarat. Aurangzeb, ostensibly in support of Murad, marched north from Aurangabad, gathering support from nobles and generals. Following a series of victories, Aurangzeb declared that Dara had illegally usurped the throne. Shah Jahan, determined that Dara would succeed him, handed over control of the empire to Dara. A Hindu lord opposed to Aurangzeb and Murad, Maharaja Jaswant Singh, battled the two princes at Dharmatpur near Ujjain, leaving them heavily weakened. Aurangzeb eventually defeated Singh, and concentrated his forces on Dara. A series of bloody battles followed, with troops loyal to Aurangzeb battering Dara's armies. In a few months, Aurangzeb's forces surrounded Agra. Fearing for his life, Dara departed Agra for Delhi, leaving Shah Jahan. The old emperor surrendered the Red Fort of Agra to Aurangzeb's nobles, but Aurangzeb refused any meeting with his father, declaring that Dara was his enemy. Murad Baksh (died 1658) was the youngest son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal. ... Gujarat (Gujarati: , Hindi: ,, IPA ; also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath). ... Maharaja Jaswant Singh was a suryavanshi rajput of rathore cula. ... Ujjain (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti) is an ancient city of central India, in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River. ... For other uses, see Agra (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Agra (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that National Capital Territory of Delhi be merged into this article or section. ... Agra Fort is located in Agra, India. ...

In a sudden reversal, Aurangzeb then had Murad arrested; the prince's former supporters, instead of fighting for Murad, defected to Aurangzeb. Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and set up an alliance with Shuja. But the key commander of Dara's armies, the Rajput general Jai Singh, defected to Aurangzeb, along with many thousand Rajput soldiers. Dara fled Delhi, and sought an alliance with brother Shuja, who refused the offer after Aurangzeb offered him the governorship of Bengal. This move had the affect of isolating Dara and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shuja, however, uncertain of Aurangzeb's sincerity, continued to battle his brother, but his forces suffered a series of defeats at Aurangzeb's hands. At length, Shuja went into exile in Arakan (in present-day Myanmar) where he disappeared, and was presumed to be dead. Rajputs (anonymous, c. ... Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla, is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Arakan is a state in the North Western part of Myanmar, formerly Burma. ...

With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father Shah Jahan confined in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara, chasing him across the northwest bounds of the empire. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1659, Aurangzeb arranged a formal coronation in Delhi. He had Dara openly marched in chains back to Delhi; when Dara finally arrived, he had his brother executed. Legends about the cruelty of this execution abound, including stories that Aurangzeb had Dara's severed head sent to the dying Shah Jahan. With his succession secured, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan under house arrest at the Red Fort in Agra. Legends concerning this imprisonment abound, for the fort is ironically close to Shah Jahan's great architectural masterpiece, the Taj Mahal. More details of these legends may be found in the article on Shah Jahan. // Events May 25 - Richard Cromwell resigns as Lord Protector of England following the restoration of the Long Parliament, beginning a second brief period of the republican government called the Commonwealth. ... It has been suggested that National Capital Territory of Delhi be merged into this article or section. ... The Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal (Hindi: , Persian & Urdu: ) is a monument located in Agra in India, constructed between 1631 and 1654 by a workforce of more than twenty thousand. ... Shahbuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan (also spelled Shah Jehan, Shahjehan. ...

Aurangzeb's Reign

Enforcement of Islamic law

The Mughals had for the most part been tolerant of non-Muslims, allowing them to practice their customs and religion without too much interference. Though certain Muslim laws had been in place during earlier reigns -- prohibitions against building new Hindu temples, for example, or on the tax on non-Muslims (the Jizyah), enforcement by earlier emperors had been lax, encouraging a political tolerance toward non-Muslims. In Islamic law, jizyah (Arabic: جزْية) is a per capita tax required of adult males of other faiths under Muslim rule in exchange for the protection of the Muslim community. ...

Up until Aurangzeb's reign, Indian Islam had been guided by mystical Sufi precepts. Although Sunni in ancestry, the Emperors from Humayun on had tolerated or openly embraced the activities of the Chisti Sufis. But Aurangzeb abandoned many of the more liberal viewpoints of his Mughal ancestors. He espoused a more conservative interpretation of Islamic principles, and behavior based on the Sharia, which he set about codifying through edicts and policies. His Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a 33 volume compilation of these edicts. Islam (Arabic: ; ) is a monotheistic religion based on the Quran. ... Sufism (Arabic تصوف taṣawwuf) is a system of esoteric philosophy commonly associated with Islam. ... Nasiruddin Humayun (March 6, 1508 – February 22, 1556), second Mughal Emperor, ruled in India from 1530–1540 and 1555–1556. ... The Chishti Order was founded by Khwaja Abu Ishaq Shami (the Syrian) (d. ... Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to Islamic law. ... Fatawa-e-Alamgiri is a compilation of law created at instance of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (who was also known as Alamgir). This compilation (or fiqh) is based on Islams Sharia law, and was the work of many scholars, principally from the Hanafi school. ...

Under Aurangzeb, Mughal court life changed dramatically. According to his interpretation, Islam did not allow music, so he banished court musicians, dancers and singers. Further, based on Muslim precepts forbidding images, he stopped the production of representational artwork, including the miniature painting that had reached its zenith before his rule. Soldiers and citizens were also given free rein to deface architectural images -- such as faces, flowers and vines -- even on the walls of Mughal palaces. Untold thousands of images were destroyed in this way. Aurangzeb gave up the Hindu-inspired practices of former Mughal emperors, especially the practice of 'darshan', or public appearances to bestow blessings, that had been commonplace since the time of Akbar. Music is conceptual time expressed in the structures of tones and silence. ...

Aurangzeb began to enact and enforce a series of edicts, and with punishments. Most significantly, Aurangzeb initiated laws which in some cases interfered with non-Muslim worship. These included the destruction of some worship sites, a prohibition of certain religious gatherings, collection of jizya tax, the closing of anti-islamic religious schools, and prohibitions of specific Hindu practices deemed immoral by him such as temple dance. Often the punishment for breaking such laws was death. On the flip-side he also re-introduced the ban the slaughter of cows sacred to hindus. In states ruled by Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (Arabic: جزْية) is a per capita tax imposed on non-Muslim adult males. ...

In such a climate of new enforcement, the Mughal infrastructure became hard to enforce in. In consequence, instead of acceptance and tolerance, non-Muslims began to feel persecuted and fearful. These feelings would lead in many instances to open political and military rebellion.

To promote the cause of Islam, Aurangzeb made many fatal blunders and needless enemies. He alienated the Rajputs, whose valuable and trusted loyalty had been so hard won by his predecessors, so totally that they revolted against him. Eventually he managed to make peace with them, but he could never be easy in his mind about Rajputana again, a fact that hampered his Deccan conquest severely. Then, he made bitter enemies in the Sikhs and the Marathas. Things came to such a head that Guru Teg Bahadur, the 9th Guru of the Sikhs was at first tortured and then executed by Aurangzeb for not accepting Islam; a martyrdom which is mourned to this day by the Sikh community. The 10th Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh then raised an open banner of revolt against Aurangzeb. A Sikh man wearing a turban The adherents of Sikhism are called Sikhs. ... Guru Teg Bahadur (Punjabi: ) (April 1, 1621 - November 11, 1675) was the ninth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism, and he became Guru on March 20, 1665 following in the footsteps of his grand-nephew, Guru Har Krishan . ... An artists impression of Guru Gobind Singh Guru Gobind Singh (Punjabi: ) (Born in Patna, Bihar, India, on December 22, 1666 as Gobind Rai – October 7, 1708, Nanded, Maharashtra,India was the tenth and last of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism and became Guru on November 11, 1675 following in...

Aurangzeb died in Aurangabad in 1707.

Expansion of the empire

From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in nearly constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion at all the boundaries of his empire.

Aurangzeb pushed into the northwest -- into Punjab, and what is now Afghanistan. He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He further attempted to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated from Bijapur by Shivaji. Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers; also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... Bijapur (Kannada: ವಿಜಾಪುರ) is a district headquarters of the Bijapur district in the state of Karnataka. ... Golconda is a ruined city and fortress 11 km west of the city of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh state, India. ... The Marāthās is a collective term referring to an Indo Aryan group of Hindu, Marathi-speaking castes of warriors and peasants hailing mostly from the present-day state of Maharashtra, who created a substantial empire, covering a major part of India, in the late 17th and 18th centuries... Shivaji Bhonslé, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonslé (Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले)( ) was the founder of the Maratha empire in western India in 1674 which was instrumental in the downfall of the Mughal Empire. ...

But the combination of military expansion and political intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and treasure. And as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker.

The Sikhs of Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the tolerant Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, rebellious Hindus flocked to join Shivaji and the Maratha Confederacy. For the last 20 years of his life, Aurangzeb engaged in constant battles in the Deccan, at enormous expense. A Sikh man wearing a turban A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a religious faith originating in the Punjab. ... Shivaji Bhonslé, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonslé (Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले)( ) was the founder of the Maratha empire in western India in 1674 which was instrumental in the downfall of the Mughal Empire. ... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... The Deccan Plateau is a vast plateau in India, encompassing most of Central and Southern India. ...

Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive -- particularly the fierce Rajputs who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, immediately upon his death they revolted against the Empire. Rajputs (anonymous, c. ...

With so much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political influence waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.

Conversion of non-Muslims

During Aurangzeb's reign many Indians converted to Islam.

"Aurangzeb's ultimate aim was conversion of non-Muslims to Islam. Whenever possible the emperor gave out robes of honor, cash gifts, and promotions to converts. It quickly became known that conversion was a sure way to the emperor's favor." (John F. Richards, p. 177 UCLA History of South Asia).

It has been said that Aurangzeb forcefully converted people, though this may be a matter of interpretation and exaggeration. There can be no question, however, that in economic and political terms, his rule significantly favored Muslims over non-Muslims, or that he specifically attempted to interfere with non-Muslim religious practice through sweeping and often violent methods. Violence is a general term to describe actions, usually deliberate, that cause or intend to cause injury to people, animals, or non-living objects. ...

While Aurangzeb clearly created a climate favorable for conversion --the carrot of the emperor's favor coupled with the stick of harsh policies -- other factors come into play. No other emperor did so much to impose Islam. No other emperor was so firm in his beliefs or so consistent in his actions.

Hindu temple desecration

No aspect of Aurangzeb's reign is more cited -- or more controversial -- than the numerous desecrations and destruction of Hindu temples.

During his reign, tens of thousands of temples were desecrated: facades and interiors were defaced and their murtis (idols) looted. In many cases, temples were destroyed entirely; in numerous instances mosques were built on their foundations, sometimes using the same stones. The Nataraja is one of the most famous images of Lord Shiva Murtis (singular Murti, also spelled Murthi or Murthy) refers to deities or images used by Hindus and also by some Mahayana Buddhists during worship as points of devotional and meditational focus. ...

Among the temples Aurangzeb destroyed were two most sacred to Hindus, in Varanasi and Mathura. In both cases, he had large mosques built on the sites. Varanasi (Hindi: वाराणसी , pronunciation / /), also known as Benares, Banaras, or Benaras (Hindi: बनारस , pronunciation / /), or Kashi or Kasi (Hindi: काशी ), is a famous Hindu holy city situated on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Mathura (मथुरा) is a city in India, located approximately 50 km north of Agra, and south of Delhi. ...

The Kesava Deo temple in Mathura, marked the place Hindus believe was the birth place of Shri Krishna. The temple had large, gilded spires that could be seen from Agra. In 1661 Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the temple, and constructed the Katra Masjid mosque. Traces of the ancient Hindu temple can be seen from the back of the mosque. Mathura (मथुरा) is a city in India, located approximately 50 km north of Agra, and south of Delhi. ... This article is about the Hindu deity. ... For other uses, see Agra (disambiguation). ... Events January 6 - The fifth monarchy men unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London. ...

Aurangzeb also destroyed what was the most famous temple in Varanasi, Vishwanath Temple, dedicated to Shiva. The temple had changed location over the years, but in 1585 Akbar had authorized its location at Gyan Vapi. Aurangzeb ordered its demolition in 1669 and constructed a mosque on the site, whose minarets stand 71 metres above the Ganges. Traces of the old temple can be seen behind the mosque. The most famous temple of the city of Varanasi, the Vishwanath temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. ... 1585 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. ... Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (Persian: جلال الدین محمد اکبر), (alternative spellings include Jellaladin, Celalettin) also known as Akbar the Great (Akbār-e-Azam) (October 15, 1542 – October 27, 1605) was the son of Humayun whom he succeeded to become ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1556 until 1605. ... // Events Samuel Pepys stopped writing his diary. ... Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri गंगा) is a major river in northern India. ...

Centuries later, emotional debate about these wanton acts of cultural desecration continue.

Impact of Aurangzeb's reign

As a reaction to Aurangzeb's political and religious expansionist policies, and to his discriminatory laws, a momentous change occurred in India. India's politics had been previously based on tribal and geographic boundaries, but now peoples began to identify and align according to their religions. This development would inform all subsequent Indian history.

Hindu rebellion

Many Hindu subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb's policies.

From the beginning of his reign, Aurangzeb permitted and encouraged the defacement and destruction of Hindu temples. Other edicts added to the impact. In 1665 he forbade Hindus to display illuminations at Diwali festivals. Hindu religious fairs were outlawed in 1668. The following year he prohibited construction of Hindu temples as well as the repair of old ones. In 1671 Aurangzeb issued an order that only Muslims could be landlords of crown lands. He called upon provincial Viceroys to dismiss all Hindu clerks. In 1674 certain lands held by Hindus in Gujarat were confiscated. The customs duties levied on merchants was doubled for non-Muslims. In 1679, contrary to the advice of many of his court nobles and theologians, Aurangzeb reimposed the Jizya or poll tax on non-Muslims. Events March 4 - Start of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. ... // Events January - The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed. ... Events May 9 - Thomas Blood, disguised as a clergyman, attempts to steal the Crown Jewels from the Tower of London. ... Events February 19 - England and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Westminster. ... Events January 24 - King Charles II of England disbands Parliament August 7 - The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes. ... In states ruled by Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (Arabic: جزْية) is a per capita tax imposed on non-Muslim adult males. ...

In 1668 the Hindu Jats in the Agra district revolted. Though they suffered horrendous loss of life, the revolt continued for years. In 1681, the Jats attacked and desecrated Akbar's tomb in Sikandra. // Events January - The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed. ... The Jats/Jatts (Hindi: , Punjabi: , Urdu: ) of Northern India and Pakistan, are descendants of war-like, horse-mounted, Central Asian Indo-Aryan) tribes. ... Events March 4 - Charles II of England grants a land charter to William Penn for the area that will later become Pennsylvania. ... Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (Persian: جلال الدین محمد اکبر), (alternative spellings include Jellaladin, Celalettin) also known as Akbar the Great (Akbār-e-Azam) (October 15, 1542 – October 27, 1605) was the son of Humayun whom he succeeded to become ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1556 until 1605. ...

In 1672 the Satnamis, a Hindu sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, staged an armed rebellion, plundering villages and defeating Mughal forces in a press toward Delhi. Aurangzeb sent an army of ten thousand, including his Imperial Guard, and put the rebellion down at great cost of life. Events England, France, Munster and Cologne invade the United Provinces, therefore this name is know as ´het rampjaar´ (the disaster year) in the Netherlands. ...

Hindu Rajputana, which had been a loyal Mughal vassal state, grew restive. The Jaipur Rajputs led by Jai Singh continued loyal, but other Rajput kingdoms didn't. With its Maharaja Jaswant Singh died in 1679, Aurangzeb seized control of Jodhpur, destroying many temples. He also moved on Udaipur. There was never a clear resolution to this war. Rajputana, which means Land of the Rajputs is a region of western India, which now makes up the greater part of Rajasthan state. ... Events January 24 - King Charles II of England disbands Parliament August 7 - The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes. ... Jodhpur (जोधपुर), the second largest city in Rajasthan, India, was founded in 1459 by King Rao Jodha. ...

Hindu military leaders and their troops banded together in various alliances throughout Aurangzeb's reign, initiating nearly constant battles and bloodshed. Among the most notable alliances was the Maratha Confederacy. At the same time Sikhs were forming the militant Khalsa. Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... A Sikh man wearing a turban A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a religious faith originating in the Punjab. ... Khalsa which means Pure is the name given by Guru Gobind Singh to all Sikhs who have been baptised or initiated by taking Amrit in ceremony called Amrit Sanchar. ...

The Deccan wars and the rise of the Marathas

In the time of Shah Jahan, the Deccan had been controlled by three Muslim kingdoms: Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. Following a series of battles, Ahmendnagar was effectively divided, with large portions of the kingdom ceded to the Mughals and the balance to Bijapur. One of Ahmednagar's generals, a Hindu Maratha named Shahji, retreated to Bijapur. Shahji left in behind in Pune his wife and young son Shivaji. The Marāthās is a collective term referring to an Indo Aryan group of Hindu, Marathi-speaking castes of warriors and peasants hailing mostly from the present-day state of Maharashtra, who created a substantial empire, covering a major part of India, in the late 17th and 18th centuries... Shahaji Bhosale was the eldest son of Maloji Bhonsale of Verul in present day Maharashtra. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Shivaji Bhonslé, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonslé (Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले)( ) was the founder of the Maratha empire in western India in 1674 which was instrumental in the downfall of the Mughal Empire. ...

In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur, Shivaji, using guerrilla tactics, took control of three Bijapuri forts formerly controlled by his father. With these victories, Shivaji assumed defacto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Bijapuris and Mughals, gaining weapons, forts, and territories. During the war of succession, Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Bijapuri attack, and Shivaji personally killed the attacking general, Afzul Khan. With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Bijapuri and Mughal territory. Afzul Khan was a Bijapuri general killed by Shivaji at Pratapgadh in 1658. ...

Following his coronation in 1659, Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle Shaista Khan to the Deccan to recover his lost forts. Shaista Khan drove into Marathi territory, and took up residence in Pune. In a daring raid, Shivaji retook Pune, even cutting off Shaista Khan's thumb as he fled. Once more the Marathis rallied to his leadership, taking back the territory. // Events May 25 - Richard Cromwell resigns as Lord Protector of England following the restoration of the Long Parliament, beginning a second brief period of the republican government called the Commonwealth. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Aurangzeb for the next few years ignored the rise of the Marathas. Shivaji led by inspiration, not by any official authority, and the Marathas continued to capture forts belonging to both Mughals and Bijapur. At last Aurangzeb sent his Jaipuri general Jai Singh, a Hindu, to attack the Marathas.

Jai Singh's blistering attacks were so successful that he was able to persuade Shivaji to agree to peace by becoming a Mughal vassal. But when Shivaji and his son accompanied Jai Singh to Agra to meet Aurangzeb, confusion occurred, ending in an altercation at he fealty ceremony. As a result, Shivaji and his son Sambhaji were placed under house arrest in Agra, from which they managed to escape. Sambhaji raje Bhonsle(May 14th 1657- Died 1689) was the elder son of the Maratha leader Shivaji, and succeeded him as the Maratha leader after Shivajis death in 1680. ...

Shivaji returned to the Deccan, successfully drove out the Mughal armies, and was crowned Chhatrapati or king of the Maratha confederacy in 1674. While Aurangzeb continued to send troops against him, Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in 1680. Chhatrapati also Chatrapati is an honorific or title for a ruler. ... Events February 19 - England and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Westminster. ... Events First Portuguese governor was appointed to Macau The Swedish city Karlskrona was founded as the Royal Swedish Navy relocated there. ...

Sambhaji succeeded in 1681. Though he was less effective militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail. Events March 4 - Charles II of England grants a land charter to William Penn for the area that will later become Pennsylvania. ...

Aurangzeb's son Akbar left the Mughal court and joined with Sambhaji, inspiring some Mughal forces to join the Marathas. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. More battles ensued, and Akbar fled to Persia.

Aurangzeb captured Sambhaji and publicly tortured and killed him in 1689. His brother Rajaram succeeded, but the confederacy fell into disarray. Surprisingly, however, this collapse provided the Marathas with great military advantage. Maratha Sardars(commanders) raised individual battles against the Mughals, and territory changed hands again and again during years of endless warfare. Since there was no central authority in control, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and treasure. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory(notably conquering Satara), the Marathas expanded attacks eastward into Mughal lands, including Mughal-held Malwa and Hyderabad. Sambhaji raje Bhonsle(May 14th 1657- Died 1689) was the elder son of the Maratha leader Shivaji, and succeeded him as the Maratha leader after Shivajis death in 1680. ... Events Louis XIV of France passed the Code Noir, allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies. ... Shrimant Rajaram Shivaji Raje Bhonsle Chhatrapati Maharaj (1670-1700 AD) was the younger son of the first Chattrapati Shivaji, step-brother of the second Chattrapati Sambhaji, and took over the Maratha Empire as the third Chattrapati after his brother was tortured and killed by Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb in 1689. ... Satara is a town and district of Maharashtra state of India. ... Malwa (Malvi:माळवा) is a region in western India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin in the western part of Madhya Pradesh state and the south-eastern part of Rajasthan. ... Hyderabad and Berar, 1903 Hyderābād was an autonomous princely state of south-central India from 1724 until 1948, ruled by a hereditary Nizam, and an Indian state from 1948 to 1956. ...

Aurangzeb waged continual war for more than two decades with no resolution. After Aurangzeb's death, new leadership arose among the Marathas, who soon became unified under the rule of the Peshwas. The Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 Statue of the great Baji Rao, near Shaniwar Wada, Pune The Peshwa (also known in Marathi as Peshwe) were Brahmin Prime Ministers to the Maratha Chattrapatis (Kings), who began commanding Maratha armies and later became the hereditary rulers of the Maratha empire...

The Pashtun rebellion

Along with the Rajputs the Pashtun tribesmen of the Empire were considered the bedrock of the Mughal Army as well as crucuailly defenders of the Mughal Empire from the threat of invasion from the West. The Pashtun revolt in 1672 was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan attempted to molest women of the Safi tribe in modern day Kunar. The Safi tribes insulted by the actions attacked the soldiers, this attack provoked a reprisal which triggered a general revolt of most of the tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to near the Khyber pass. There the army was surrounded by a tribesman and routed, with only four people including the Governor managing to escape. The revolt spread after that with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority along the Pashtun belt, particularly felt was the closure of the important Attock to Kabul trade route along the Grand Trunk road. By 1674 the situation had dertioated to the extent that Aurangzeb himself camped at Attock to personally take charge of matters. Switching to employing diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms the Mughals eventually split the rebellion and while they never managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route the revolt was partially suppressed. However the long term anarchy on the Mughal frontier that prevailed as a consequence ensured that Nadir Shah's forced half a century later faced little resistance on the road to Delhi. Safi has several meanings: Safi is a city in Morocco. ... Kunar (also spelled Konar) is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan, located in the northeastern part of the country and on the border with Pakistan. ... , Looking back towards Pakistan, on the Pakistan side of the Khyber Pass The Khyber Pass (also called the Khaiber Pass or Khaybar Pass) (Urdu: درہ خیبر) is the most important pass connecting Pakistan with Afghanistan. ... A view of Grand Trunk Road - a picture from Smithsonian Institute The Grand Trunk Road (abbreviated to GT Road in common usage) is the Indian Subcontinents first, largest and oldest major road, linking Sonargaon in Bengal (now in Narayanganj, Bangladesh) with Kabul in Afghanistan via the Khyber Pass. ...

Defiance of the Sikhs and the rise of the Khalsa

Since its founding by Guru Nanak in the 1500s, Sikhism grew in popularity throughout India, particularly in the Punjab. In the years following the persecution and death of the fifth Guru Arjan Dev by Aurangzeb's grandfather Jahangir, the Sikhs had become increasingly militant and defiant. Guru Nanak (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ, Devanagari: गुरु नानक) (20 October 1469 - 7 May 1539), the founder of Sikhism and the first of the ten Gurus of the Sikhs, was born in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, near Lahore in present-day Pakistan. ... A Sikh man wearing a turban A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a religious faith originating in the Punjab. ... Guru Arjan Dev (Punjabi: ) (15 April 1563 - 30 May 1606) was the fifth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism and became Guru on 1 September 1581 following in the footsteps of Guru Ram Das. ... Nuruddin Jahangir (Persian: نور الدین جہھانگر) (August 31, 1569 – October 28, 1627) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1605 until 1627. ...

Early in Aurangzeb's reign, various insurgent groups of Sikhs engaged Mughal troops in increasingly bloody battles. In 1670, the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji encamped in Delhi, receiving large numbers of followers. Aurangzeb regarded this popularity as a potential threat, and determined to subdue it. But Mughal skirmishes with the increasingly militant Sikhs continued. A Sikh man wearing a turban A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a religious faith originating in the Punjab. ... Guru Teg Bahadur Ji (April 1, 1621 - November 11, 1675) was the ninth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism and became Guru on March 20, 1665 following in the footsteps of his grand-nephew, Guru Har Krishan Ji. ...

Sikhs and Kashmiri Pandits recount that in 1675 a group of Kashmiri brahmins, who were of the Hindu faith, were being pressured by Muslim authorities to convert to Islam and approached Guru Tegh Bahadur with their dilemma. To demonstrate a spirit of unity and tolerance, the Guru agreed to help the brahmins: He told them to inform Aurangzeb that the brahmins would convert only if Guru Tegh Bahadur himself was converted. Events January 5 - The Battle of Turckeim June 18 - Battle of Fehrbellin August 10 - King Charles II of England places the foundation stone of the Royal Greenwich Observatory in London - construction begins November 11 - Guru Gobind Singh becomes the Tenth Guru of the Sikhs. ...

His response led to his death. At length Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested and beheaded, giving his life to protect the brahmins. His execution infuriated the Sikhs. In response, his son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh further militarized his followers. An artists impression of Guru Gobind Singh Guru Gobind Singh (Punjabi: ) (Born in Patna, Bihar, India, on December 22, 1666 as Gobind Rai – October 7, 1708, Nanded, Maharashtra,India was the tenth and last of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism and became Guru on November 11, 1675 following in...

Aurangzeb installed his son Bahadur Shah as governor of the northwest territories, including Sikh-controlled parts of Punjab. The new governor relaxed enforcement of Aurangzeb's edicts, and an uneasy peace ensued. However, Guru Gobind Singh Ji had determined that the Sikhs should actively prepare to defend their territories and their faith. In 1699 he established the Khalsa a Sikh order of "saint-soldiers", ready to die for their cause. Two Mughal Emperors have had the name of Bahadur Shah: Bahadur Shah I Bahadur Shah Zafar II. This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Khalsa which means Pure is the name given by Guru Gobind Singh to all Sikhs who have been baptised or initiated by taking Amrit in ceremony called Amrit Sanchar. ...

This development alarmed not only the Mughals, but the nearby Rajputs. In a temporary alliance, both groups attacked Guru Gobind Singh Ji and his followers. The united Mughal and Rajput armies laid siege to the fort at Anandpur Sahib. Although they faced certain death, the Sikhs refused to surrender. In an attempt to dislodge the Sikhs, Aurangzeb vowed that the Guru and his Sikhs would be allowed to leave Anandpur safely. Aurangzeb validated this promise by writing on the back of the Holy Koran. Following this promise and seeing the suffering of his followers, Guru Gobind Singh Ji made plans to leave. However, as the Sikhs abandoned the fort under the cover of darkness, the Mughals attacked in betrayal of the agreement.

The Mughals killed all four of Guru Gobind Singh Ji's sons and decimated much of the Sikh army. Only Guru Gobind Singh Ji and forty brave Sikhs escaped. Guru Gobind Singh Ji in response sent Aurangzeb an eloquent yet defiant letter entitled the Zafarnama (Notification of Victory), accusing the emperor of treachery, and claiming a moral victory. Zafarnama means the Notification of Victory and is the name given to the letter sent by the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1705 to the Emperor of India, Aurangzeb. ...

On receipt of this letter, Aurangzeb invited Guru Gobind Singh Ji to meet in Ahmednagar, but Aurangzeb died before Guru Gobind Singh Ji arrived.

Also see article Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadar Guru Tegh Bahadar with the Kashmiri Pandits (Took place in 1675 at Chandni Chowk, Delhi, India) An extremely important event in Sikh history that had a profound impact on the future direction of Sikhism, the religion of the Sikhs. ...

Legacy

Aurangzeb's influence continues through the centuries, affecting not only India, but Asia, and the world. He was the first ruler to attempt to impose Sharia law on a non-Muslim country. His critics, principally Hindu, decry this as intolerance, while his mostly Muslim supporters applaud him, some calling him a Pir or Caliph. He engaged in nearly perpetual war, justifying the ensuing death and destruction on moral and religious grounds. He eventually succeeded in the imposition of Islamic Sharia in his realm, but alienated many constituencies, not only non-Muslims, but also native Shi'ites. This led to increased militancy by the Marathas, the Sikhs, and Rajputs, who along with other territories broke from the empire after his death, and to disputes among Indian Muslims. The wanton and ruthless destruction of countless Hindu temples remains a dark stain on Muslim/Hindu relations to this day. His one-pointed devotion to conquest and control based on his personal worldview has continuing resonance in our current world. A Pir (Persian: پیر) is a Sufi teacher. ... Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. ... Shia Islam (Arabic: follower; English has traditionally used Shiite or Shiite) is the second largest Islamic denomination; some 10-15% of all Muslims are said to follow a Shia tradition. ...

Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury as a trust of the citizens of his empire and did not use it for personal expenses or extravagant building projects. He left few buildings, save for a modest mausoleum for his first wife, Bibi Ka Maqbara, sometimes called the mini-Taj, in Aurangabad. He also created the Badshahi Masjid mosque (Imperial or Alamgiri Mosque) in Lahore, which was once the largest mosque outside of Mecca. He also added a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) to the Red Fort complex in Delhi. His constant warfare, however, drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy just as much as the exorbitant personal interests and opulence of his predecessors. Bibi Ka Maqbara built by Aurangzeb’s son, Azam Shah in 1660 as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam. ... Badshahi Masjid at night The Badshahi Masjid (بادشاەى مسجد), literally the Kings Mosque, was built in 1673 by Aurangzeb in Lahore, Pakistan. ... The Minar-e-Pakistan represents Pakistani independence The Hazuri Bagh, looking towards the Roshnai Gate Lahore (Urdu: لاہور; Hindi: लाहौर) is a major city of Pakistan and is the capital of the province of Punjab. ... The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) is a small mosque made of white marble built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb at the Red Fort complex in Delhi, India. ... The Delhi Fort is located in Delhi, India. ...

He alienated many of his children and wives, driving some into exile and imprisoning others. At the ebb of his life, he expressed his loneliness, and perhaps regret for his militant, punitive rule of the empire. His personal piety, however, is undeniable. Unlike the often alcohol- and women-absorbed personal lives of his predecessors, he led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim precepts with his typical determination, and even memorized the Qur'an. He knitted haj caps and copied out the Qur'an throughout his life, and sold these works anonymously. He used the proceeds, and only these, to fund his modest resting place. He died in Ahmednagar in 1707 at the age of 90, having outlived many of his children; his modest open-air grave, in Kuldabad, expresses his strict and deep interpretation of Islamic accords. The , (Arabic: recitation, also transliterated as Quran, Koran, and Alcoran, Turkish Kuran), is the central text of Islam. ... The Hajj or Haj is the Pilgrimage to Mecca (or, Makkah) and is the fifth of the Five Pillars of Islam. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. ... The , (Arabic: recitation, also transliterated as Quran, Koran, and Alcoran, Turkish Kuran), is the central text of Islam. ... Ahmednagar is a city in the state of Maharashtra, India, on the left bank of the Sina river, about 100 km southeast of Pune. ... Events January 1 - John V is crowned King of Portugal April 25 - Allied army is defeated by Bourbonic army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession. ... Khultabad is a town in Maharashtra, India not far from Aurangabad (now also known as Sambhajinagar). ...

After Aurangzeb's death, his son Bahadur Shah I took the throne, and the Mughal Empire, due both to Aurangzeb's overextension and cruelty, and to Bahadur's weak military and leadership qualities, entered a long decline. Immediately after Bahadur Shah took the throne, the Maratha Confederacy (held at bay by Aurangzeb, albeit at a high human and monetary cost) consolidated and launched effective invasions of Mughal territory, usurping power from the weak emperor. Within 100 years of his death, the Mughal Emperor would simply be a puppet of the British East India Company, with little power beyond Delhi and ignored by most Indian princes. Muazzam Bahadur Shah (October 14, 1643 - February 1712), also known as Shah Alam I was a Mughal emperor of India from 1707 to 1712. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company which was granted an English Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ...

References

• Delhi, Khushwant Singh, Penguin USA, Open Market Ed edition, February 5, 2000. (ISBN 0140126198)
• A Short History of Pakistan, Dr. Ishtiaque Hussain Qureshi, University of Karachi Press.
• Article on Aurganzeb from MANAS group page, UCLA
• Essays on Islam and Indian History, Richard M. Eaton. Reprint. New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 019566265-2). -- Eaton's essay "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States", which attempts to comprehend Aurangzeb's motivation in destroying temples, has generated much recent debate
• The Peacock Throne, Waldemar Hansen (Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1972). -- a very British accounting of Aurangzeb's reign, but filled with excellent references and source material

The University of California, Los Angeles, popularly known as UCLA, is a public, coeducational university situated in the neighborhood of Westwood within the city of Los Angeles. ...

Commentary by recent historians

Wolpert

Stanley Wolpert writes in his New History of India ISBN 0195166779 (Oxford, 2003) Prof. ...

...Yet the conquest of the Deccan, to which [Aurangzeb] devoted the last 26 years of his life, was in many ways a Pyrrhic victory, costing an estimated hundred thousand lives a year during its last decade of futile chess game warfare...The expense in gold and rupees can hardly be accurately estimated. [Aurangzeb]'s moving capital alone- a city of tents 30 miles in circumference, some 250 bazaars, with a 1/2 million camp followers, 50,000 camels and 30,000 elephants, all of whom had to be fed, stripped peninsular India of any and all of its surplus gain and wealth... Not only famine but bubonic plague arose...Even [Aurangzeb] had ceased to understand the purpose of it all by the time he..was nearing 90... "I came alone and I go as a stranger. I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing," the dying old man confessed to his son in Feb 1707. "I have sinned terribly, and I do not know what punishment awaits me."

See also

• Mughal empire
• Emperor of India

The Mughal Empire, (Persian: دولتِ مغل) was an empire that at its greatest territorial extent ruled most of the Indian Subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, and parts of Afghanistan and Persia, between 1526 and 1707. ... Imperial Crown of India Signature of King Edward VIII The R and I after his name indicate king and emperor in Latin (Rex and Imperator). The title Empress of India was given to Queen Victoria in 1877. ...

External links

Temple destruction

• Why did Aurangzeb Demolish the Kashi Vishvanath? -- Aurangzeb destroyed temple after evidence of crimes
• Temple Destruction by Aurangzeb -- Cites multiple edicts issued and Mughal court documents
• Temple Destruction by Aurangzeb: Literary Evidence (Expanded Version) -- Expands article above with additional source materials
• Sanitizing Temple Destruction -- Presents a review of several theories regarding motivation for temple destruction

Contemporary drama

• The Tragedy of Aureng-zebe Text of John Dryden's drama, based loosely on Aurangzeb and the Mughal court, 1675