A nineteenth century picture of Paul of Tarsus

The Pauline epistles are the fourteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus, thirteen of which are explicitly ascribed to Paul, and one, Hebrews, is anonymous.^[1] Except for Hebrews, the Pauline authorship of these letters was not academically questioned until the nineteenth century. From [1], in the public domain. ... From [1], in the public domain. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about the Christian scriptures. ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ... The Epistle to the Hebrews (abbr. ...

Seven letters are generally classified as “undisputed”, expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus: Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 & 2 Timothy, and Titus. The first three, called the "Deutero-Pauline Epistles," have no consensus on whether or not they are authentic letters of Paul. The latter three, the "Pastoral Epistles", are more disputed; contemporary scholarly opinion widely regards them as pseudographs,^[2] though certain scholars do consider them genuine.^[3] There are two examples of pseudonymous letters written in Paul’s name apart from the alleged New Testament epistles.^[4] Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars reject Pauline authorship.^[5] Pseudepigrapha (Greek pseudos = false, epi = after, later and grapha = writing (or writings), latterly or falsely attributed, or down right forged works, describes texts whose claimed authorship is unfounded in actuality. ...

Paul had often employed an amanuensis, only occasionally writing himself.^[6][7] A secretary is a person who performs routine, administrative, or personal tasks for a superior. ...

Criteria used by scholars

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Scholars use a number of methods of historiography and higher criticism to determine whether a text is properly attributed to its author. The primary methods used for Paul's letters are the following: Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... Historiography is a term with multiple meanings that has changed with time, place and observer, and is thus resistant to a single encompassing meaning. ... Higher criticism, also known as historical criticism, is a branch of literary analysis that attempts to investigate the origins of a text, especially the text of the Bible. ...

Internal Evidence: The first method can include personal testimony in the letter, claims of authorship, biographical details, and so forth. This evidence is important in spite of its problems. For example, the Epistle to the Hebrews is anonymous, which caused debate for Pauline authorship as early as the writings of Origen in the third century. Origen Origen (Greek: Ōrigénēs, 185–ca. ...

External Evidence: External evidence is testimony to the authorship of a text within antiquity, statements made by those who had access to reliable sources now gone. External evidence includes ancient authors quoting Paul, naming Paul's works, or expressing ideas and phrases common to Paul. Use or mention by another implies the quoted precedes its being quoted. It helps to date when Pauline authorship was accepted. An earlier date can lend credibility to genuine Pauline authorship. For example, the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians is named by Irenaeus in the mid second century. It's improbable the text was made after this date. The text seems to have been known to Justin Martyr and Ignatius in the very early second century when people who knew Paul in person could have been alive. The lack of witness by ancient sources suggests a later date, an argument from silence. The difficulty includes the incompleteness of the historical record: many ancient texts are lost, damaged, or revised. For example, two early lists of accepted biblical books, the Muratorian fragment and Papyrus 46, are damaged. It is thus hard to know what texts were on the first list. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Among Christians, the Muratorian fragment is known as a copy of perhaps the oldest known list of New Testament books that were accepted as canonical by the churches known to its anonymous compiler. ... Papyrus 46 is one of the oldest New Testament manuscripts known to exist to day, with its creation dated at the early 3rd century 1. ...

Historical setting: An independently-written narrative of Paul's life and ministry, found in the Acts of the Apostles, is used to determine the date, and possible authorship, of Pauline letters by locating their origin within the context of his life. For example, Paul mentions that he is a prisoner in his Epistle to Philemon 1:7; J. A. T. Robinson argued that this captivity was Paul's imprisonment in Caesarea,^[8] W. M. Ramsay identified this as Paul’s captivity in Rome,^[9] while others have placed the captivity in Ephesus. One difficulty with this position is the limited data available on Paul's historical setting, and this is especially true with the conclusion of the narrative of Acts prior to Paul's death. The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. ... The Epistle to Philemon is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ...

Language and style: Vocabulary, sentence structure, employment of idioms and common phrases, etc. are analyzed for consistency with the author’s other known works. A similar style implies common authorship, whilst a radically divergent vocabulary implies different authors. For example, E. J. Goodspeed argued that the vocabulary of the Epistle to the Ephesians showed a literary relationship with the First Epistle of Clement, written around the end of the first century.^[10] Similarly, E. Percy argued that the speech and style of Colossians more strongly resembled Pauline authorship than not.^[11] Of course, style and language can vary for reasons other than differing authorship, such as the subject of the letter, the recipient, the circumstances of the times, or simply maturation on the part of the author. Described by William Barclay as the Queen of the Epistles, the Epistle to the Ephesians is one of the books of the Bible in the New Testament. ...

Contents and theology: Similar to language and style, doctrinal consistency and development are analyzed relative to the author's other known works. A theological matter like the eschaton or the Mosaic Law could be repeated in the works in question. A consistent point of view implies a common author. Contradictory or unrelated teachings imply multiple authors. For example, W. Michaelis saw the Christological likeness between the Pastoral Epistles and some of Paul's undisputed works, and argued in favor of Pauline authorship.^[12] A problem with this method is analyzing the coherence of a body of diverse and developing teachings. This is seen in the disagreement between scholars. For example, with the same epistles mentioned above, B. S. Easton argued their theological notions disagreed with other Pauline works, and rejected Pauline authorship. ^[13] G. Lohfink argued the theology of the Pastoral epistles agreed with Paul's, but took this as proof someone wishing to enjoy the authority of an apostle copied the famous church leader.^[14] For the book by Pope Benedict XVI, see Eschatology (book). ... Look up point of view, POV, viewpoint in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The three pastoral epistles are books of the canonical New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy (1 Timothy) the Second Epistle to Timothy (2 Timothy), and the Epistle to Titus. ...

The undisputed epistles

The name "undisputed" epistles represents the general scholarly consensus asserting that Paul authored each letter. However, even the most undisputed of letters, such as Galatians, have found critics.^[15] Moreover, the unity of the letters is sometimes questioned. 1 and 2 Corinthians have garnered particular suspicion, with some scholars, among them Edgar Goodspeed and Norman Perrin, supposing one or both texts as we have them today are actually amalgamations of multiple individual letters. There remains considerable discussion as to the presence of possible significant interpolations, among them Romans 1:18-2:29, 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1 and Galatians 1:13-2:14. However, such textual corruption is difficult to detect and even more so to verify, leaving little agreement as to the extent of the epistles' integrity. This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

These letters are quoted or mentioned by the earliest of sources, and are included in every ancient canon, including that of Marcion. There is no record of scholarly doubt concerning authorship until the nineteenth century when, around 1840, German scholar Ferdinand Christian Baur accepted only four of the letters bearing Paul's name were genuine, which he called the Hauptebriefe (Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, and Galatians). Hilgenfeld (1875) and H. J. Holtzmann (1885) instead accepted the seven letters listed above, adding Philemon, 1 Thessalonians, and Philippians; few scholars have argued against this minimal list. The Epistle to the Romans is one of the letters of the New Testament canon of the Christian Bible. ... The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... The Second Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible New Testament. ... The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. ... Philippians redirects here. ... The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the First Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ... The Epistle to Philemon is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... Marcion of Sinope (ca. ... Ferdinand Christian Baur (June 21, 1792 - 1860), was a German theologian and leader of the Tübingen school of theology. ... Adolf Bernhard Christoph Hilgenfeld (June 2, 1823 - January 12, 1907) was a German Protestant divine. ... Heinrich Julius Holtzmann (May 7, 1832 - 1910), German Protestant theologian, son of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877), was born at Karlsruhe, where his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme consistory. ...

The epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law, Jesus, faith, &c. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles. Torah, (תורה) is a Hebrew word meaning teaching, instruction, or especially law. It primarily refers to the first section of the Tanakh–the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, or the Five Books of Moses, but can also be used in the general sense to also include both the Written... The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. ...

Colossians

Though Colossians is witnessed by the same historical sources as the undisputed texts, Pauline authorship of Colossians has found some critics. It was originally doubted by F. C. Baur, though others working from his general thesis, such as H. J. Holtzmann, argued that an original brief Pauline text experienced many interpolations by a later editor.^[16] The basis for this early objection was that the letter aimed at refuting Gnosticism, a heresy not serious until the early second century. This thesis subsequently declined, especially following the analysis of Gnosticism by R. Wilson,^[17] where he contended that the supposed parallels were unsupported. The Epistle to the Colossians is a book of the Bible New Testament. ...

Another argument centres on differences in style and vocabulary. W. Bujard attempted to show significant stylistic differences between Colossians and Paul's other works, such as unusual genitive constructions (1:27, 2:11, 2:19, 3:24).^[18] Others have analyzed the style and reached opposite conclusions, pointing to common Pauline idiom and phrase such as en christo and en kurio.

The extensiveness of the theological development in the epistle compared to other epistles has led to scepticism concerning Pauline authorship. H. Conzelmann made such an argument, pointing to differing theological concepts of "hope".^[19] Others accepting this analysis have asserted that the text is merely a late text of Paul, though the thesis has hardly found wide scholarly concurrence.^[20] It has been observed that Paul's criticism of strict adherence to "the law" is typical of the genuine Pauline letters.

The situation of the letter also supports the idea of Paul as author, matching the personal friendships expressed in the Epistle to Philemon, making many greetings relating to personal acquaintances. The connection with Philemon, an undisputed letter, is significant. A certain Archippus is referred to in both (Philemon 2, Colossians 4:17), and the greetings of both letters bear similar names (Philemon 23-24, Colossians 4:10-14). The Epistle to Philemon is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ...

Ephesians

The author of the epistle claims to be Paul in the opening address, itself identical to those of Second Corinthians and Colossians. There were few doubts in the early church that Paul wrote Ephesians: early church fathers authoritatively quoted from it, and examples include Tertullian,^[21] Clement of Alexandria,^[22] and Irenaeus,^[23] among others. The letter also appears in the Marcion canon (140) and the Muratorian fragment (180). Look up Paul in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers... Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ... Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens), was the first member of the Church of Alexandria to be more than a name, and one of its most distinguished teachers. ... Irenaeus (Greek: Εἰρηναῖος), (b. ...

The authenticity of this letter was first disputed by the Dutch Renaissance scholar Desiderius Erasmus, and in more recent times has drawn detailed criticism. This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... Desiderius Erasmus in 1523 Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (also Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam) (October 27, probably 1466 – July 12, 1536) was a Dutch humanist and theologian. ...

The letter is made up of 50 sentences, 9 over 50 words. The closest, Romans, has 3 out of 581 sentences of such length. E. J. Goodspeed,^[24] and C. L. Mitton^[25] argued the style was unlike Paul's other works. Many words in the letter are not in the "undisputed" epistles. A. van Roon argued the style is consistent with Paul, and thought the entire linguistic analysis dubious.^[26] In antiquity, the Greek Church Fathers, many of whom noticed the divergent Greek style of Hebrews, made no such comments about Ephesians. Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers...

Theologically, the word ecclesia (church) is used to refer to the universal church rather than, as Paul typically employs it, to the local churches that he had founded. Also, the eschatological tone is more subdued than in other letters: the expectation of Christ’s imminent return is unmentioned, while future generations are, as is a concern for social order. W. G. Kummel argued that the theology is beyond Paul.^[27] Such an analysis, however, must account for the possibility of doctrinal development. Ecclesia can refer to: Ecclesia (sociology of religion) Ecclesia (ancient Athens) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... For the book by Pope Benedict XVI, see Eschatology (book). ...

There is a close literary relationship between the Colossians and Ephesians. Over forty passages in Ephesians are expansions or variations of passages in Colossians. E. F. Scott argued that Paul used one letter as a model for the other,^[28] whereas others have considered Ephesians to be derivative of Colossians, edited and reworked by another.^[29] Donald Guthrie summarized the implications of this: "Advocates of non-Pauline authorship find it difficult to conceive that one mind could have produced two works possessing so remarkable a degree of similarity in theme and phraseology and yet differing in so many other respects, whereas advocates of Pauline authorship are equally emphatic that two minds could not have produced two such works with so much subtle interdependence blended with independence."^[30] The Epistle to the Colossians is a book of the Bible New Testament. ...

Paul founded and built up the church in Ephesus; however, this letter does not appear to contain the usual specific greetings, seen in Paul's other letters, addressed to people he remembers. There is some evidence that the Letter to the Ephesians might have been sent to several different churches. Some of the oldest manuscripts of this letter are not addressed to "God's holy people who are at Ephesus," but merely to "God's holy people." Marcion, around 180, quoted from this letter and attributed the quote to Paul's "Letter to the Laodiceans." In the 17th century, James Ussher suggested that this might have been a "circular letter" that Paul sent to several churches, including Ephesus and Laodicea. This would explain why Paul's usual personal greetings are absent: these could not be included in a letter sent to several different churches. For other uses, see number 180. ... Archbishop James Ussher (1581-1656) James Ussher (sometimes spelled Usher) (4 January 1581–21 March 1656) was Anglican Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland between 1625–1656 and a prolific religious scholar who most famously published a chronology which calculated the date of Creation as 4004 BC. // Ussher...

Second Epistle to the Thessalonians

The epistle was included in the Marcion canon and the Muratorian fragment; it was mentioned by name by Irenaeus, and quoted by Ignatius, Justin, and Polycarp.^[31] In recent times, criticism of Pauline authorship was raised by H. J. Holtzmann and G. Hollmann (see above). Much of the dispute concerns the linguistic similarity between 1 Thessalonians and 2 Thessalonians. For example, 1 Thess 2:9 is almost identical to 2 Thess 3:8. This has been explained in the following ways: Paul wrote 2 Thessalonians soon after writing 1 Thessalonians or with the aid of a copy of 1 Thessalonians, or Paul wrote 1 Thessalonians himself but a later writer imitated him, or the linguistic similarities are seen as subtle enough to make imitation an unnecessary hypothesis. The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the First Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ... The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the Second Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ...

Udo Schnelle argued that 2 Thessalonians was significantly different in style from the "undisputed" epistles, characterizing it as whole and narrow, rather than as a lively and abrupt discussion on a range of issues. Moreover, Alfred Loisy argued that it reflected knowledge of the synoptic gospels, which, according to certain synoptic theories, had not been written when Paul wrote his epistles. Bart D. Ehrman viewed the insistence of genuineness within the letter and the strong condemnation of forgery at its start as ploys commonly used by forgers. However G. Milligan observed that a church which possessed an authentic letter of Paul would be unlikely to accept a fake addressed to them.^[32] Alfred Firmin Loisy (1857-1940) was a French Roman Catholic priest, professor and theologian who became the intellectual standard bearer for Biblical Modernism. ... Bart D. Ehrman is a New Testament scholar and an expert on early Christianity. ...

The Eschatology of each letter to the Thessalonians, it is argued,^[33] is considerably different.

Norman Perrin claimed that, in the time of Paul, prayer usually treated God the Father as ultimate judge, rather than Jesus. From this hypothesis he contrasted 2 Thessalonians 3:5 and 1 Thessalonians 3:13, and contended that the letter was written after Paul's death. This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

The Pastoral Epistles

The First Epistle to Timothy, the Second Epistle to Timothy, and the Epistle to Titus are often referred to as the Pastoral Epistles, and, after Hebrews^[34], are the most disputed of all the epistles attributed to Paul. The First Epistle to Timothy is one of the three Pastoral Epistles, traditionally attributed to Saint Paul and part of the New Testament of the Bible. ... The Second Epistle to Timothy is one of the three Pastoral Epistles, normally attributed to Saint Paul, and is part of the canonical New Testament. ... The Pastoral Epistles are often considered together, as each throws light upon the others. ... The three pastoral epistles are books of the canonical New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy (1 Timothy) the Second Epistle to Timothy (2 Timothy), and the Epistle to Titus. ...

Despite this, these epistles were accepted as genuine by many, perhaps most of the ante-Nicene Church Fathers^[35][36]. Some scholars have argued that the letters were certainly accepted as Pauline by the time of Irenaeus (c. 115)^[37]. They were also included in the Muratorian fragment. According to Jerome, the gnostic Christian Basilides also rejected these epistles, and Tatian, while accepting Titus, rejected other Pauline epistles.^[38] Marcion (c. 140) excluded all three, along with Hebrews, from his otherwise complete Pauline corpus, and it is impossible to determine whether or not he knew of them. D. Guthrie, for instance, argues that the epistles' theology would have been cause to reject the letters since it was incompatible with certain passages, such as 1 Tim 1:8 and 1 Tim 6:20^[38], while Ehrman suggests that second-century proto-orthodox Christians had motivation to forge the Pastorals to combat the Gnostic use of other Pauline epistles^[39]. Even the ancient writer Tertullian (c. 220), in Adv. Marc. V.21, expresses confusion why these epistles had not been included Marcion's canon. Among Christians, the Muratorian fragment is known as a copy of perhaps the oldest known list of New Testament books that were accepted as canonical by the churches known to its anonymous compiler. ... For other uses, see Jerome (disambiguation). ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Basilides redirects here. ... Tatian was an early Assyrian[1] Christian writer and theologian of the second century. ... Marcion of Sinope (ca. ...

Beginning in the early 19th century, many German biblical scholars began to question the traditional attribution of these letters to Paul. The vocabulary and phraseology used in the Pastorals is often at variance with that of the other epistles. Over 1/3 of the vocabulary is not used anywhere else in the Pauline epistles, and over 1/5 is not used anywhere else in the New Testament, while 2/3 of the non-Pauline vocabulary are used by second century Christian writers.^[40] For this reason, and because of a claimed precedence of 1 Clement, some scholars have associated these works with later 2nd century Christian writings.^[41] The precedence of 1 Clement was challenged by R. Falconer,^[42] while L. T. Johnson challenged the linguistic analysis as based on the arbitrary grouping of the three epistles together: he argued that this obscures the alleged similarities between 1 Timothy and 1 Corinthians, between Titus and the other travel letters, and between 2 Timothy and Philippians. The Epistles of Clement often referred to as 1 Clement and 2 Clement were not accepted in the canonic New Testament. ... Dr. Luke Timothy Johnson is the R.W. Woodruff Professor of New Testament and Christian Origins at Candler School of Theology at Emory University. ...

Norman Perrin argued that Paul's travels to Crete (Titus 1:5-6), again to Ephesus (1 Tim 1:3), Nicopolis (Titus 3:12), and Troas (2 Tim 1:15, 4:13) cannot be fit into any reconstruction of Paul's life or works as determined from the other epistles or from Acts. In this he was preceded by several scholars who rejected Pauline authorship.^[43] Robinson argued against this analysis,^[44] while others have debated whether this should be grounds for rejection of Pauline authorship, as Acts concludes while Paul is still alive. Harnack, Lightfoot and other scholars have suggested hypothetical scenarios that would have these epistles written near the end of Paul's life without contradicting biographical information in the other epistles or Acts. Scholars arguing for the authenticity of the pastorals posit a "second career" of Paul to explain the occasion for the visits mentioned in these letters, though contemporary scholars generally consider the "second career" of Paul to be a creation of later Christian communities.^[45] This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Crete (disambiguation). ... Map of Lydia in ancient times showing location of Ephesus and other ancient cities in western Anatolia Ephesus (Greek: , Turkish: ) was an Ionian Greek city in ancient Anatolia, founded by colonists from Athens in the 10th century BC[1]. The city was located in Ionia, where the Cayster River (K... Nicopolis (meaning in Greek: city of victory; see also List of traditional Greek place names) or Actia Nicopolis was an ancient city of Epirus, founded 31 BC by Octavian in memory of his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. ... Map of the Troas The Troas (Troad; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is an ancient region in the northwestern part of Anatolia, bounded by the Hellespont to the northwest, the Aegean Sea to the west, and separated from the rest of Anatolia by the massif that forms... Adolf von Harnack (1851-1930), theologian Otto Harnack (1857-1914), Literaturhistoriker; Historiker und Goetheforscher Theodosius Harnack Agnes von Harnack (1884-1950), Frauenrechtlerin, siehe: Agnes von Zahn-Harnack Arvid Harnack (1901-1942), Widerstandskämpfer Ernst von Harnack (1888-1945), Widerstandskämpfer Mildred Harnack geb. ... Lightfoot may refer to: Gordon Lightfoot, a Canadian singer-songwriter; or Lightfoot!, the 1966 debut album by Gordon Lightfoot. ...

Other reasons for a second century date have been argued. The Pastoral Epistles lay out church organisation concerning the character and requirements for bishops, elders, deacons, and widows. Some scholars have claimed that these offices could not have appeared during Paul's lifetime.^[46] In terms of theology, some scholars claim that the Pastorals reflect more the characteristics of 2nd century (Proto-orthodox) church thought, than those of the 1st century.^[47] In particular, whilst in the 1st century the idea of Christ's return being immediate was current, see parousia (as also described in the non-pastoral epistles), in the 2nd century it was seen as more distant, matching the choice of the pastorals to lay down instructions for a long time after the passing away of the apostles.^[48] Lastly, some have argued that the Pastorals condemn forms of Hellenic mysticism and gnosticism, which were seen as not significant in the first century;^[49] however, recent scholarship into first century Gnosticism has suggested an earlier dominance of Gnostic views.^[50] Proto-orthodox Christianity is a term created by religious philosopher Bart D. Ehrman. ... In Christianity, Parousia means the (Second) Coming of Christ. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Hebrews

The Epistle to the Hebrews is the most commonly-rejected of all seven disputed epistles of the traditional Pauline corpus. Unlike its thirteen peers, it is internally anonymous, though early manuscripts do mention his name in their title headings. Moreover, scholars, such as Robert Grant^[51] and Harold Attridge^[52], have noted the many obvious differences in language and style between Hebrews and the Pauline correspondence known to be authentic. The Epistle to the Hebrews (abbr. ...

Church Fathers, including ante-Nicene writers such as Tertullian, noted the different manner in which the theology and doctrine of the epistle appear.^[53] This variance led many to name other candidates for authorship, such as the fellow traveller of Paul called Barnabas (favoured by Tertullian), a follower of John the Baptist called Apollos (favoured by Martin Luther and several modern scholars), as well as less likely candidates such as Silas. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ... Barnabas was an early Christian mentioned in the New Testament. ... St. ... Apollos (Απολλως; contracted from Apollonius) was an early Jewish Christian, who is mentioned several times in the New Testament. ... Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 – February 18, 1546) was a German monk,[1] priest, professor, theologian, and church reformer. ... This article is about the first century figure from early Christianity. ...

Origen (c. 240), as quoted by Eusebius (c. 330) had this to say on the matter: "That the character of the diction of the epistle entitled To the Hebrews has not the apostle’s rudeness in speech, who confessed himself rude in speech, that is, in style, but that the epistle is better Greek in the framing of its diction, will be admitted by everyone who is able to discern differences of style. But again, on the other hand, that the thoughts of the epistle are admirable, and not inferior to the acknowledged writings of the apostle, to this also everyone will consent as true who has given attention to reading the apostle…. But as for myself, if I were to state my own opinion, I should say that the thoughts are the apostle’s, but that the style and composition belonged to one who called to mind the apostle’s teachings and, as it were, made short notes of what his master said. If any church, therefore, holds this epistle as Paul’s, let it be commended for this also. For not without reason have the men of old handed it down as Paul’s. But who wrote the epistle, in truth God knows. Yet the account which has reached us [is twofold], some saying that Clement, who was bishop of the Romans, wrote the epistle, others, that it was Luke, he who wrote the Gospel and the Acts."^[54] Origen Origen (Greek: ÅŒrigénÄ“s, 185–ca. ...

In general, the evidence against Pauline authorship is too solid for scholarly dispute. Donald Guthrie, in his New Testament Introduction (1976), commented that "most modern writers find more difficulty in imagining how this Epistle was ever attributed to Paul than in disposing of the theory"^[55]. Harold Attridge tells us that "it is certainly not a work of the apostle"^[56]; Daniel Wallace simply states, "the arguments against Pauline authorship, however, are conclusive"^[57]. As a result, few supporters of Pauline authorship remain. As Richard Heard notes, in his Introduction To The New Testament, "modern critics have confirmed that the epistle cannot be attributed to Paul and have for the most part agreed with Origen’s judgement, ‘But as to who wrote the epistle, God knows the truth’"^[58].

History of the Pauline canon

See also: Development of the New Testament canon

There are no preserved lists of a Christian canon from the first century and early second century. Small portions of Ignatius's writings, who wrote before his martyrdom in c. 110, appear to be quoted from Romans, I Corinthians, Ephesians, Colossians, and I Thessalonians, suggesting that these works, at least, existed by the time Ignatius wrote his works.^[59] Ignatius does not appear to have quoted from II Thessalonians whereas Polycarp (c. 80 to 167) disciple of John the Evangelist (born ? died c. 110) not only quote from II Thessalonians but also the Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Gospel of Luke, Acts of the Apostles, I Corinthians, II Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, I Thessalonians, I Timothy, II Timothy, Epistle to the Hebrews, I Peter, I John, III John, in his The Letter to the Philippians. Scholar Bruce Metzger stated "One finds in Clement's work citations of all the books of the New Testament with the exception of Philemon, James, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John." A folio from P46, an early 3rd c. ... Ignatius of Antioch (probably died AD 107) was the third patriarch of Antioch, after Saint Peter and Euodius, who died around AD 68. ... See also: Second Epistle to the Corinthians and Third Epistle to the Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... The Epistle to Ephesians is one of the books of the Bible in the New Testament, written by Paul at Rome about the same time as that to the Colossians, which in many points it resembles. ... The Epistle to the Colossians is a book of the Bible New Testament. ... The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the First Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ... Ignatius of Antioch (probably died AD 107) was the third patriarch of Antioch, after Saint Peter and Euodius, who died around AD 68. ... The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the Second Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ... For other uses, see Polycarp (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Names of John. ... The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the Second Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ... The Gospel of Matthew (literally, according to Matthew; Greek, Κατά Μαθθαίον or Κατά Ματθαίον, Kata Maththaion or Kata Matthaion) is a synoptic gospel in the New Testament, one of four canonical gospels. ... The Gospel of Mark, anonymous[1] but traditionally ascribed to Mark the Evangelist, is a synoptic gospel of the New Testament. ... The Gospel of Luke (literally, according to Luke; Greek, Κατά Λουκαν, Kata Loukan) is a synoptic Gospel, and the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament. ... The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. ... See also: Second Epistle to the Corinthians and Third Epistle to the Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... See also: First Epistle to the Corinthians and Third Epistle to the Corinthians The Second Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible New Testament. ... The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. ... The Epistle to Ephesians is one of the books of the Bible in the New Testament, written by Paul at Rome about the same time as that to the Colossians, which in many points it resembles. ... The Epistle to Philippians is a book included in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ... The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the First Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible. ... The First Epistle to Timothy is one of the three Pastoral Epistles, traditionally attributed to Saint Paul and part of the New Testament of the Bible. ... The Second Epistle to Timothy is one of the three Pastoral Epistles, normally attributed to Saint Paul, and is part of the canonical New Testament. ... The Epistle to the Hebrews (abbr. ... In Christianity, the First Epistle of Peter is a book of the New Testament. ... The First Epistle of John is a book of the Bible New Testament, the fourth of the catholic or general epistles. ... The Third Epistle of John is the 64th book of the Bible. ... Bruce Metzger pictured on the cover of his autobiography Reminiscences of an Octogenarian Bruce Manning Metzger (born 1914) is a professor emeritus at Princeton Theological Seminary and Bible editor who serves on the board of the American Bible Society. ... Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens), was the first member of the Church of Alexandria to be more than a name, and one of its most distinguished teachers. ... The Epistle to Philemon is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... The Epistle of James is a book in the Christian New Testament. ... The Second Epistle of Peter is a book of the New Testament of the Bible. ... The Third Epistle of John is the 64th book of the Bible. ...

The two earliest extant lists of canons containing Paul's letters are from the late second century. One of them does not contain all of the Pauline letters. Some early canons are:

• A canon written by Marcion, the founder of Marcionism (similar to gnosticism), heretical sect. Marcion did not include any of the Gospels except a version of the Gospel of Luke, which according to his enemies he had edited, whereas he claimed that it was their version which was edited. He includes ten epistles by Paul, but does not include the Pastoral Epistles (1 & 2 Timothy and Titus). Neither does he include the Epistle to the Hebrews.

• A canon written by someone unknown in Italy, usually named the Muratorian Canon. This includes all thirteen of the letters containing Paul's name, although he does not include the Epistle to the Hebrews as canon, and includes other texts now viewed as non-canonical.

• Papyrus 46, one of the oldest New Testament manuscripts (c. 200), contains the last eight chapters of Romans; all of Hebrews; virtually all of 1–2 Corinthians; all of Ephesians, Galatians, Philippians, Colossians; and two chapters of 1 Thessalonians. Because it is damaged there is no scholarly consensus on whether to consider the omission of a text definitive. Scholar Young Kyu Kim dated Papyrus 46 to the first century before the reign of Domitian (pre 81) ^[60], however other scholars have disputed this early dating^[61].

Marcion of Sinope (ca. ... In Early Christianity Marcionism is the dualist belief system that originates in the teachings of Marcion of Sinope at Rome around the year 144 (115 years and 6 months from the Crucifixion, according to Tertullians reckoning in Adversus Marcionem, xv). ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The Gospel of Luke (literally, according to Luke; Greek, Κατά Λουκαν, Kata Loukan) is a synoptic Gospel, and the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament. ... The First Epistle to Timothy is one of the three Pastoral Epistles, traditionally attributed to Saint Paul and part of the New Testament of the Bible. ... The Second Epistle to Timothy is one of the three Pastoral Epistles, normally attributed to Saint Paul, and is part of the canonical New Testament. ... The Pastoral Epistles are often considered together, as each throws light upon the others. ... The Epistle to the Hebrews (abbr. ... Among Christians, the Muratorian fragment is known as a copy of perhaps the oldest known list of New Testament books that were accepted as canonical by the churches known to its anonymous compiler. ... The Epistle to the Hebrews (abbr. ... Papyrus 46 is one of the oldest New Testament manuscripts known to exist to day, with its creation dated at the early 3rd century 1. ... Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor of the gens Flavia. ...

See also

• Textual criticism
• Authorship of the Johannine works
• Historicity of Jesus
• History of Christianity
• New Testament apocrypha
• Gnosticism and the New Testament
• Papyrus 46
• Paul of Tarsus

Carmina Cantabrigiensia, Manuscript C, folio 436v, 11th century Textual criticism or lower criticism is a branch of philology or bibliography that is concerned with the identification and removal of errors from texts and manuscripts. ... El Grecos rendition of John the Apostle shows the traditional author of the Johannine works as a young man. ... This article is about the veracity of Jesus existence. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Church historian... In the process of determining the Biblical canon, a large number of works were excluded from the New Testament. ... This article discusses the relationship between Gnosticism and the New Testament. ... Papyrus 46 is one of the oldest New Testament manuscripts known to exist to day, with its creation dated at the early 3rd century 1. ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ...

Notes

1. ^ Though Hebrews was almost certainly not written by Paul, it has been a part of the Pauline corpus "from the beginning of extant MS production" (Wallace, Daniel B. "Hebrews: Introduction, Argument, and Outline." http://web.archive.org/web/20031011120719/http://www.bible.org/docs/soapbox/hebotl.htm).
2. ^ Ehrman 2004:385
3. ^ Guthrie lists: "Wohlenberg, Lock, Meinertz, Thornell, Schlatter, Spicq, Jeremais, Simpson, Kelly, and Fee", p622
4. ^ These are the Epistle to the Laodiceans and 3 Corinthians. See Gutherie p607-8.
5. ^ Ehrman 2004:411
6. ^ Gal 6:11, Rom 16:22, 1 Cor 16:21, Col 4:18, 2 Thess 3:17, Phil 1:19
7. ^ Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [Gal 6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
8. ^ Robinson p61.
9. ^ Ramsay p357.
10. ^ Goodspeed p. vii.
11. ^ E. Percy Die Probleme der Kolosser und Epheserbriefe (1964) p66.
12. ^ W. Michaelis Pastoralbriefe und Gefangenschaftsbriefe (1930) pp99-100.
13. ^ B.S. Easton, The Pastoral Empstles (1948) p25.
14. ^ G. Lonhfink, Paulinische Theologie in der Rezeption der Pastoralbrief, in Paulus in den neutestamentlichen Spatschriften ed. K. Kertelge, (1981) pp70-121.
15. ^ for example, F. R. McGuire, even though otherwise critical scholars like A. Q. Morton saw this text as the benchmark for refuting Pauline authorship of most other epistles; see A. Q. Morton and J. McLeman, Paul, the man and the Myth (1966).
16. ^ see F. F. Bruce, Colossians p172; also, Holtzman, Kritik der Epheser u. Kolosserbriefe (1872); some have attempted to locate the origin of doubt with T. Mayerhoff as early as 1838 in his work Der Brief an die Kolosser.
17. ^ R. McL. Wilson, Gnosis and the New Testament (1958) p175.
18. ^ W. Bujard, Stilanalytische Unterschungen zum Kolosserfrief als Beitrag zur Methodik von Sprachvergleichen (1973) see the commentary in Guthrie p574-5
19. ^ H. Conzelmann, An Outline of the Theology of the New Testament (1969) p314.
20. ^ see, for example, G. Cannon The Use of Traditional Materials in Colossians (1983) pp196-203.
21. ^ Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.22.17
22. ^ Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 4.65
23. ^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 5.2.3
24. ^ Goodspeed p. vi
25. ^ Mitton, The Epistle to the Ephesians (1951) p. ii
26. ^ Roon, The Authenticity of Ephesians (1974) p. 215
27. ^ P. Feine and J. Kummel, Einleitung in das Neue Testament (English translation Kummel) p. 360
28. ^ Scott, The Epistles of Paul to the Colossians, to Philemon and to the Ephesians (1930) p121
29. ^ e.g. Mitton, The Epistle to the Ephesians (1951) p. 245-255
30. ^ Guthrie p511
31. ^ Guthrie p593
32. ^ G. Milligan, Saint Paul's Epistles to the Thessalonians (1908) vi, ix, p448.
33. ^ for example, see C. Masson, Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens (1957) pp. 10-11
34. ^ Hebrews, though internally anonymous, has long been ascribed to Paul, and many early manuscripts include his name in the titles.
35. ^ A few Fathers do not mention these epistles by name, instead quoting passages found in these letters (without making it clear that they are quoting anything at all), and there is no evidence in the surviving writings of Ignatius and Justin Martyr that proves their familiarity with these texts.
36. ^ Davis, Glen (1997-2006). Cross Reference Table: Writings and Authorities. The Development of the Canon of the New Testament. Retrieved on 2006-09-23.
37. ^ see Bernard xv; James p5-24
38. ^ ^{a b} Guthrie 1990:610
39. ^ Ehrman 2003:240
40. ^ Perrin 1974:264-5
41. ^ Harrison p177, Streeter p153
42. ^ Falconer p5
43. ^ Holtzmann, Dibelius, and Goodspeed, for example.
44. ^ Robinson p67-85
45. ^ Brown 1997:675
46. ^ Ehrman 2004:391
47. ^ Ehrman 2003:240
48. ^ Ehrman 2004:391
49. ^ See Easton p1-2
50. ^ Guthrie p617-8
51. ^ http://religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1116&C=1234 Robert M. Grant, A Historical Introduction To The New Testament
52. ^ http://earlychristianwritings.com/hebrews.html Peter Kirby, EarlyChristianWritings.com
53. ^ De Pudicitia, XX
54. ^ Eusebius, Church History 6.25.11-14
55. ^ http://www.experiencegrace.com/Authorship_of_Hebrews.html Jeffrey S. Bowman, "The Authorship of the Book of Hebrews"
56. ^ http://earlychristianwritings.com/hebrews.html Peter Kirby, EarlyChristianWritings.com
57. ^ http://web.archive.org/web/20000830073548/http://www.bible.org/docs/soapbox/hebotl.htm Daniel Wallace, "Hebrews: Introduction, Argument and Outline"
58. ^ http://religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=531&C=563 Richard Heard, Introduction To The New Testament
59. ^ http://www.ntcanon.org/Ignatius.shtml
60. ^ Kim, Young Kyu. “Paleographical Dating of 46 to the Later First Century.” Biblica 69 (1988): 248-257.
61. ^ Griffin, B (1996), "The Paleographical Dating of P-46"

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References

• Bernard, J. H. (1899). The Pastoral Epistles. 
• Brown, Raymond E. (1997). Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Anchor Bible. ISBN 0-385-24767-2. 
• Easton, B. S. (1948). The Pastoral Epistles. 
• Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. New York: Oxford. ISBN 0-19-514183-0. 
• Ehrman, Bart D. (2004). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford. ISBN 0-19-515462-2. 
• Ehrman, Bart D. (1996). The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture:The Effect of Early Christological Controversies on the Text of the New Testament. New York: Oxford. ISBN 0-19-510279-7. 
• Falconer, Sir R. (1937). The Pastoral Epistles. 
• Goodspeed, E. J. (1956). Key to Ephesians. 
• Guthrie, Donald (1990). New Testament Introduction. Hazell Books. ISBN 0-85111-761-9. 
• Heard, Richard (1950). An Introduction to the New Testament. Black. ASIN B0000CHRAW. 
• Harrison, P. N. (1921). The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles. 
• Johnson, Luke Timothy; Todd C. Penner (2002). The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. ISBN 0-8006-3439-X. 
• von Harnack, Adolf (1926). Die Briefsammlung des Apostels Paulus. 
• James, J. D. (1906). The Genuineness and Authorship of the Pastoral Epistles. 
• Jeremais, J. (1952). Die Briefe an Timotheus und Titus. 
• Kümmel, Werner G. (1996). Introduction to the New Testament. Abingdon Pr. ISBN 0-687-05576-8. 
• Pagels, Elaine (1992). The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters. Trinity Press International. ISBN 1-56338-039-0. 
• Perrin, Norman (1974). The New Testament, an Introduction: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History. Harcourt College Pub. ISBN 0-15-565725-9. 
• Ramsay, Sir W. M. (1920). St. Paul the Traveller. 
• Robinson, J. A. T. (1976). Redating the New Testament. 
• Schnelle, Udo (1998). The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. ISBN 0-8006-2952-3. 
• Streeter, B. H. (1929). The Primitive Church. 

Raymond Edward Brown (May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998), was an American Roman Catholic priest and Biblical scholar. ... Bart D. Ehrman is a New Testament scholar and an expert on early Christianity. ... Bart D. Ehrman is a New Testament scholar and an expert on early Christianity. ... Bart D. Ehrman is a New Testament scholar and an expert on early Christianity. ... Adolf von Harnack, German theologian Adolf von Harnack (May 7, 1851 - June 10, 1930), was a German theologian and science administrator. ... Elaine Pagels, née Hiesey, (born February 13, 1943), is the Harrington Spear Paine Professor of Religion at Princeton University. ...

External links

• Hermann Detering, 'The Dutch Approach to the Pauline Epistles". The Dutch Radicals denied the authenticity even of the so-called Principal Epistles, in order to interpreting the entire corpus as representing antinomistic movements dating from about 140.
• J. P. Holding, "A Defense of the Authenticity of all the Pastoral Epistles" Christian apologist perspective