The Aztec army was the armed forces of the Aztec Triple Alliance including warriors from Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and other allied policies of Mesoamerica. The army of the Aztecs was composed of a large number of commoners (yaoquizqueh^[1]) with only basic military training and a considerable number of proffessional warriors belonging to the nobility (pipiltin ^[2] ) and who were organised into warrior societies and ranked according to their achievments. The aztec state was centered around political expansion and dominance of and exaction of tribute from other citystates, and warfare was the basic dynamic force in Aztec poliics. Aztec society was also centered around warfare: Every Aztec male received basic military training from an early age and the only possibility of upwards social mobility for commoners (macehualtin^[3] ) were through military achievements - especially the taking of captives (maltin ^[4] ). The sacrification of war captives was an important part of many of the Aztec religious festivals. Warfare was thus the main driving force of both the aztec economy and religion. Aztec Triple Alliance was an alliance of three city-states: Tenochtitlán, Tlacopán, and Texcoco. ... Tenochtitlan, looking east. ... Texcoco is a city in México State, Mexico, located to the east of Mexico City at 19. ... Tlacopan means florid plant on flat ground or also named Tacuba was one of the mesoamericans kingdoms of the prehispanic age Triple Alianza (together with Tenochtitlan and Texcoco). ... The cultural areas of Mesoamerica The term Mesoamérica is used to refer to a geographical region that extends roughly from the Tropic of Cancer in central Mexico down through Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua to northwestern Costa Rica, and which is characterized by the particular cultural homogeneity... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Warfare in Aztec society

There were two main objectives in aztec aggressive warfare. The first objctive was political: the subjugation of enemy city states inorder to exact tribute and expand Aztec political hegemony. The second objective was religious and socioeconomic: the taking of captives to be sacrificed in religious ceremonies. These dual objectives also influenced the kind of warfare practiced by the aztecs. Most warfare was primarily political and was driven by the expectations of the aztec nobility for the Tlatoani ^[5] to provide economic growth through expansion and the expectation of the commoners to have a chance of moving up in society through succesful warfare. The first action of a ruler elect was always to stage a military campaign which served the dual purpose of showing his ability as a warrior and thus make it clear to subject polities that his rule would be as tough on any rebellious conduct as that of his predecessor, and to provid abundant captives for his coronation cermony. A failed coronation campaign was seen as an extremely bad omen for the rule of a Tlatoani and could lead to rebellions of citystates subjected by earlier rulers and to the Aztec nobility ditrusting his rulership - This was the case for Tizoc who was poisoned by the aztec nobles after several failed military campaigns. A tlatoani was a member of the Aztec nobility. ... Tízoc was the Aztec ruler (Tlatoani) of the city of Tenochtitlán. ...

Fortifications

The Aztecs didn't normally maintain tight territorial control within their empire but nonetheless there are examples of fortifications built by the Aztecs. Prominent examples are the strongholds at Oztuma (Oztuman ^[6]) where the Aztecs built a garrison to keep the rebellious Chontales in line, in Quauhquechollan (modern day Huauquechula) near Atlixco were the Aztecs built a garrison in order to always have forces close to their traditional enemies the Tlaxcalteca, Chololteca and Huexotzinca, and in Malinalco near Toluca where Ahuitzotl built garrisons and fortifications to keep watch over the Matlatzinca, Mazahua and Otomies and to always have troops close to the enemy Tarascan state - the borders with which were also guarded and at least partly fortified on both sides. The Tequistlatecan language group also called Chontal of Oaxaca consists of three distinct languages. ... Atlixco is a rapidly growing city in the state of Puebla, Mexico. ... Picture from the History of Tlaxcala showing Cortés meeting with the Tlaxcallan messengers. ... The Roman Catholic church of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios overlooks the town of Cholula from atop the Great Pyramid. ... View over Malinalco Malinalco is a city in México State, Mexico. ... Toluca is a city in México State in central Mexico, at 19. ... Auítzotl (sometimes rendered as Ahuitzotl) was the Aztec ruler of the city of Tenochtitlán. ... Matlatzinca is a name used to refer to different indigenous ethnic groups in the Toluca Valley in the state of Edo. ... Mazahua is an ethnic group living in the Ixtlahuaca District in Mexico. ... The Otomí are a Native American people living in the central plateau region of Mexico. ... The Tarascan state was a state in precolumbian Mesoamerica roughly covering the geographic area of the present day mexican state of Michoacan. ...

Flower War

Main article: Flower war

A second kind of warfare practice by the aztecs was the kind referred to as Flower war (xochiyaoyotl^[7] ). This kind of warfare was fought by smaller armies after previous arrangement between the parties involved. This kind of warfare was not aimed directly at conquering the enemy city state, but served a number of other purposes. One often cited purpose is the taking of sacrificial captives and this was certainly an important part of most Aztec warfare. Fray Diego Durán and the chronicles based on the Crónica X states that the Xochiyayoyotl was instigated by Tlacaelel during the great famine of Mesoamerica under the reign of Moctezuma I. These sources state that Tlacaelel arranged with the leaders of Tlaxcala to engage in ritual battles that would provide both parties with sacrificial victims enough to appease the gods. Ross Hassig (1988) however poses four main political purposes of xochiyaoyotl: Firstly this kind of warfare gave the aztecs a chance to demonstrate their military might - often attacking smaller city states the aztec army were sending a much smaller portion of their total forces than their opponents. This also meant that an objective was attrition - the large aztec army could afford to engage in smallscale warfare much more frequently than their opponents who would then gradually tire untill they were ripe for actual conquest. It also allowed a ruler to maintain hostilities, at low intensity, while occupied by other matters. And mainly Xochiyaotl served as propaganda both towards other city states and to the aztec people allowing the Aztec rulers to continously demonstrate their might with a constant influx of war captives to Tenochtitlan. A flower war (or more correctly, flowery war) from the Nahuatl xochiyaoyotl; was, among the Aztec, a planned war in which the objective was not to kill enemies or conquer territory, but rather to capture as many prisoners as possible, who would then be sacrificed in religious ceremonies and maybe... A flower war (or more correctly, flowery war) from the Nahuatl xochiyaoyotl; was, among the Aztec, a planned war in which the objective was not to kill enemies or conquer territory, but rather to capture as many prisoners as possible, who would then be sacrificed in religious ceremonies and maybe... Diego Durán (c. ... Crónica X is the name given by Mesoamerican researchers to a postulated primary-source early 16th century historical work on the traditional history of the Aztec and other central Mexican peoples, which some researchers theorize formed the basis for several other extant 16th century documents. ... Tlacaelel (1397 - 1487) was the nephew of Itzcoatl (1427 - 1440) and brother of Moctezuma I (1440 - 1469), the first and second Mexica emperors. ... The cultural areas of Mesoamerica The term Mesoamérica is used to refer to a geographical region that extends roughly from the Tropic of Cancer in central Mexico down through Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua to northwestern Costa Rica, and which is characterized by the particular cultural homogeneity... Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, or Moctezuma I (also known as Montezuma I) (the surname meaning solitary one who shoots an arrow into the sky) was born to Huitzilihuitl, the second Aztec Emperor. ... Picture from the History of Tlaxcala showing Cortés meeting with the Tlaxcallan messengers. ...

Organisation

The Aztec army was organised into two layers. The commoners were organised into "wards" (calpulli ^[8] ) that were under the leadership of tiachcahuan^[9] and calpoleque ^[10]. The nobles were organised into professional warrior societies. Apart from the Tlatoani The warleaders of the Aztecs were the High General, the Tlacochcalcatl ^[11] and the General the Tlacateccatl ^[12] . The Tlacochcalcatl and Tlacateccatl also had to substitutes appointed as their succesors if the should die in batle took part. Priests also partook in warfare carrying the effigies of deities with the armies into battle. The Image below shows the Tlacateccatl and the Tlacochcalcatl and two other officers (probably priests) known as Huitznahuatl and Ticocyahuacatl all dressed in their tlahuiztli suits. Calpulli is the Nahuatl term for a group of families (or a single large family) that usually had a particular function in the Pre-Columbian society (such as priests, warriors, etc. ... Tlacochcalcatl pictured in the Codex Mendoza folio 67r. ... Tlacateccatl pictured in the Codex Mendoza folio 67r. ...

Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1038x630, 147 KB) The bottom part of Image:Codex Mendoza folio 67r. ...

Training

Sons of nobles were trained at the Calmecac ^[13] and received sophisticated training in warfare as well as in general courtly subjects such as rhetorics, poetry and religion. In the Aztec empire, children of nobility would attend special schools, called Calmecacs, where they would receive very rigorous religious and military training that would prepare them to be future leaders. ... Rhetoric (from Greek ρητωρ, rhêtôr, orator) is one of the three original liberal arts or trivium (the other members are dialectic and grammar). ... The Chinese poem Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by Emperor Gaozong (Song Dynasty) Poetry (from the Greek , poiesis, making or creating) is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. ...

The sons of commones were trained in the Telpochcalli ^[14] where they received basic military training and sometimes learned a trade.

Stratification and ranks

The commoners composed the bulk of the army, the lowest were porters (tlameme ^[15] ) who carried weapons and supplies, next came the youths of the telpochcalli lead by their sargeants the telpochyahque ^[16] and the commoners yaoquizqueh. Next were commoners who had taken captives, the so-called tlamani^[17] .

Ranking above these came the nobles of the "warrior societies". These were ranked according to the number of captives they had taken in previous battles; the number of captices determined which of the different suits of honor (called tlahuiztli)^[18] they were allowed to wear. These tlahuiztli became gradually more spectacular as the ranks progressed, allowing the most excellent warriors who had taken many captives to stand out on the battlefield.

This page from the Codex Mendoza shows the gradual improvements to equipment and tlahuiztli as a warrior progresses through the ranks from commoner to porter to warrior to captor, and later as a noble progressing in the warrior societies from the noble warrior to "Eagle warrior" to "Jaguar Warrior" to "Otomitl" to "Shorn One" and finally as "Tlacateccatl".

Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (750x1092, 211 KB) Folio 20r of the Codex Mendoza, a mid-16th century Aztec codex. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (750x1092, 211 KB) Folio 20r of the Codex Mendoza, a mid-16th century Aztec codex. ... The Codex Mendoza is a painted document from the 1540s. ...

Warrior societies

Main article: Aztec warrior societies

Commoners excellng in warfare could be promoted to the noble class and could enter some of the warrior societies (at least the Eagles and Jaguars). Sons of nobles trained at the Calmecac however were expected to enter into one of the societies as they progressed through the ranks. Warriors could sift from one society and into another when they became sufficiently proficient how exactly this happened is uncertain. Each society had different styles of dress and equipment as well as styles of bodypaint and adornments.

Eagle and Jaguar warriors

The largest warrior society was that of the Eagles (quauhtin^[19]) and the Jaguars (ocelomeh^[20]) . They dressed as the animal they took their name from, some wearing pelts of large felines and others adorned in eagle feathers. Many of these warriors are depicted as statues and in codices. Aztec poetry also frequently applies the diphrasal metaphor "In cuahtli in Ocelotl" (the eagles the Jaguars) to refer to nobles in war. The headquarter of the eagles and jaguars was the Quauhcalli "the eagle house" located in the ceremonial precint in Tenochtitlan. A statue of an Aztec Eagle warrior. ... Aztec jaguar warrior A jaguar warrior (less commonly, jaguar knight) refers to certain members of the Aztec army that were professional soldiers. ...

The Otomies

The Otomies (Otontin ^[21])were another warrior society who took their name after the Otomi people who were renowned for their fierce fighting. In the historical sources it is often difficult to discern whether the word otomitl "Otomi" refers to members of the Aztec warrior society, or members of the ethnic group who also often joined the Aztec armies as mercenaries or allies. The Otomí are a Native American people living in the central plateau region of Mexico. ...

The Shorn Ones

The "Shorn Ones" (Cuachicqueh ^[22]) was the most prestigious warrior society - their heads were shaven bald apart from a long braid over the left ear. Their bald heads and faces were painted one half blue and another half red or yellow. They had sworn not to take a step backwards during a battle on pain of death at the hands of their comrades.

Equipment

Missile weapons

Aztec jaguar warrior (ocelōtl) with shield (chimalli) and obsidian sword (mācuahuitl)

Atlatl: The aztec spearthrower was a weapon used to hurl small spears or javelins called "tlacochtli" with greater force and from greater range weapon than these could be thrown by hand. Murals at Teotihuacan show warriors using this effective weapon and it is characteristic of the Mesoamerican cultures of central Mexico. The Image File history File links Download high resolution version (601x705, 33 KB) Summary Aztek jaguar warrior, from the Codex Magliabechiano Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Jaguar warrior ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (601x705, 33 KB) Summary Aztek jaguar warrior, from the Codex Magliabechiano Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Jaguar warrior ... An atlatl (from Nahuatl ahtlatl ; in English pronounced [1] or [2]) or spear-thrower is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in spear-throwing, and includes a bearing surface which allows the user to temporarily store energy during the throw. ... Teotihuacan was the largest Pre-Columbian known city in the Americas, and the name Teotihuacan is used to refer to the civilization this city dominated, which at its greatest extent included most of Mesoamerica. ...

Tlahuitolli: a bow.

Mitl: arrow

Micomitl: Aztec arrow quiver.

Yaomitl: war arrows withbarbed obsidian points.

Tematlatl: a stone sling. made from maguey fiber.

Shock weapons

Macuahuitl: "Hand stick", essentially a wooden sword with sharp obsidian blades embedded into its sides. This was the standard armament of the elite cadres. Also known in Spanish by the Taino word "macana". A blow from such a sword was reputedly capable of decapitating a horse.^[23] Drawing of a 15th century macahuitl The maquahuitl, an Aztec obsidian-edged sword-club, was a devastating cutting weapon capable of easily cleaving to bone (according to a Spanish account, it was capable of easily decapitating a horse), but lacked a point (and thus couldnt be used for thrusting... Obsidian was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. ... The Taíno are the pre-Hispanic Amerindian inhabitants of the Greater Antilles, which includes Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica and the Bahamas. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Tepoztopilli: Wooden lance with sharp obsidian stones in the top. The tepoztopilli was a common front-lines weapon of the aztec military. ...

Quauhololli: a simple club with a spherical wooden ball at the end.

Huitzauhqui: a wooden club with inlaid obsidian blades. Obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Counterclockwise from top: obsidian, pumice and rhyolite (light color) Obsidian is a type of naturally occurring glass, produced by volcanoes (igneous origin) when a felsic lava cools rapidly and freezes without sufficient time for crystal growth (see glass transition temperature). ...

Armour

Chimalli: shields made by different materials such as the wooden shield "cuauhchimalli" or maize cane "otlachimalli". There were also ornamental shield decorated with motives made in featherwork, these were called māhuizzoh chimalli. Binomial name Zea mays L. Maize (Zea mays ssp. ...

Ichcahuipilli: quilted cotton armour. One or two fingers thick neither swords nor atlatl darts penetrated this armour.

Ehuatl: the tunic that noble warriors wor over their cotton armur or tlahuiztli.

Tlahuiztli: the distinctively decorated suits of prestigious warrors and warrior societies.

Pamitl: the banner that excellent and notable warriors and officers wor on their backs. They were often personalised so thet they could be seen and rcognized from a distance.

Campaigns and Battles

Once the decision of going to war was staken the news were proclaimed in the plazas calling for mobilization of the army for several days or weeks in advance. When the troops were ready and any allied cities had been alerted and had given their consent to partake in the campaign the mach began. Usually the fist to march were the priests carrying the effigies, the next day the nobles marched led by the Tlacochcalcatl and Tlacateccatl. And on the third day the main bulk of the army set outwith the Tenochca marching first followd by the warriors from the other cities in the alliance (Tepanecas and Texcocas) and lastly the allied forces from other cities, some of these subject cities would also join in gradually during the march as the army passd by their cities. Thanks to the efficient system of roads maintained throughout central mexico the army marched an estimated average of 19-32 kilomters pr day.^[24] The size of the aztec army varied considerably from small contingents of some thousand warriors to large armies with several hundred thousand warriors. In the war against Coixtlahuacan the aztec army numbered 200,000 warriors and 100,000 porters and other sources mention aztec armies of up to 700,000 men.

Combat

Battles usually started at dawn - smoke signals were used to show that a battle was beginning and to coordinate attacks between different divisions of the army. The signal to attack was given by by musical intruments such as drums and the conchshell trumpet the Tlapitzalli. Usually the battle begun with projctile fire - the bulk of the army was composed by commoners often armed with bows or slings. Then the warriors advanced into melee combat and during this phase before entering into melee the atlatl was used - this missile weapon was effective over shorter distances than slings and bows but much more lethal. The first warriors to enter into melee were the most distinguished warriors of the Cuachicque and the Otontin societies. Later the Eagles and Jaguars and lastly the commoners and unpracticed youths. Untill entering into melee order and rank was maintained and the aztecs would try to surround or outflank the enemies, but once melee began the ranks disolved into a fray of individual fighting. Youths participating in battles for the first time would usually not be allowed into battle before the aztec victory was ensure and the could try to grab prisoners from between the fleeing enemies. It is said that particularly during flowery wars aztec warriors would try to capture rather than kill their foes, sometimes striving to cut a hamstring or otherwise incapacitate their opponents. This has been used as an argument to explain the defeat of the Aztecs to the spanish but it is no longer considered to be probable - since sourcs clearly state that aztecs did kill their spanish opponents whenever they had the chance. Other aztec tactical maneuvres included feigned retreats and ambushes where small portions of Aztec forces would attack and then fall back and lure the enemy into a trap where many more warriors were hidden in the tarrain. If a defending eemy retreated into their city the battle was continued there - but normally the objective was to conquer a city not destroy it. Once the city was conquered the main temple would be lit on fire signalling far and wide the defeat. If enemies still refused to surrendr the rest of the city could be burned as well, but this was uncommon.^[25] A tlapitzalli is a musical instrument known from pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, particularly the Aztec. ...

See also

• Jaguar Warrior
• Eagle Warrior
• Atlatl
• Macana
• Macuahuitl
• Tepoztopilli
• Army
• Military forces

Aztec jaguar warrior A jaguar warrior (less commonly, jaguar knight) refers to certain members of the Aztec army that were professional soldiers. ... A statue of an Aztec Eagle warrior. ... An atlatl (from Nahuatl ahtlatl ; in English pronounced [1] or [2]) or spear-thrower is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in spear-throwing, and includes a bearing surface which allows the user to temporarily store energy during the throw. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Drawing of a 15th century macahuitl The maquahuitl, an Aztec obsidian-edged sword-club, was a devastating cutting weapon capable of easily cleaving to bone (according to a Spanish account, it was capable of easily decapitating a horse), but lacked a point (and thus couldnt be used for thrusting... The tepoztopilli was a common front-lines weapon of the aztec military. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Armed forces are the military forces of a state. ...

Notes

References

• Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2121-1.