Aztec warfare concerns the aspects associated with the militaristic conventions, forces, weaponry and strategic expansions conducted by the Late Postclassic Aztec civilization of Mesoamerica, including particularly the military history of the Aztec Triple Alliance involving the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and other allied polities of the central Mexican region. Pretorian Guards, Roman Soldiers Military has two broad meanings. ... For other uses, see Weapon (disambiguation). ... Mesoamerican chronology The chronology of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is usually divided into the following eras: Paleo-Indian Period c. ... Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic... This article is about the culture area. ... Military history is composed of the events in the history of humanity that fall within the category of conflict. ... The Aztec Triple Alliance, also known as The Aztec Empire, was an alliance of three Aztec city-states: Tenochtitlán; Texcoco; and Tlacopán. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... Tenochtitlan, looking east. ... Texcoco was a major site and city-state in the central Mexican plateau region of Mesoamerica during the Late Postclassic period of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican chronology. ... Tlacopan means florid plant on flat ground or also named Tacuba was one of the mesoamericans kingdoms of the prehispanic age Triple Alianza (together with Tenochtitlan and Texcoco). ... For other uses, see Polity (disambiguation). ...

The Aztec armed forces were typically composed of a large number of commoners (yaoquizqueh^[1]) who possessed only basic military training, and a smaller but still considerable number of professional warriors belonging to the nobility (pipiltin ^[2] ) and who were organised into warrior societies and ranked according to their achievements. The Aztec state was centered around political expansion and dominance of and exaction of tribute from other city states, and warfare was the basic dynamic force in Aztec politics. Aztec society was also centered around warfare: every Aztec male received basic military training from an early age and the only possibility of upwards social mobility for commoners (macehualtin^[3] ) was through military achievement - especially the taking of captives (maltin ^[4] ). The sacrifice of war captives was an important part of many of the Aztec religious festivals. Warfare was thus the main driving force of both the Aztec economy and religion. // Aztec society traditionally was divided into two classes; the macehualli (people) or peasantry and the pilli or nobility. ... Human sacrifice is known to have been an aspect of Aztec culture, although the extent of the practice is debated by scholars. ...

Warfare in Aztec society

There were two main objectives in Aztec aggressive warfare. The first objective was political: the subjugation of enemy city states in order to exact tribute and expand Aztec political hegemony. The second objective was religious and socioeconomic: the taking of captives to be sacrificed in religious ceremonies. These dual objectives also influenced the kind of warfare practiced by the Aztecs. Most warfare was primarily political and was driven by the expectations of the Aztec nobility for the Tlatoani ^[5] to provide economic growth through expansion and the expectation of the commoners to have a chance of moving up in society through successful warfare. The first action of a ruler elect was always to stage a military campaign which served the dual purpose of showing his ability as a warrior and thus make it clear to subject polities that his rule would be as tough on any rebellious conduct as that of his predecessor, and to provide abundant captives for his coronation ceremony. A failed coronation campaign was seen as an extremely bad omen for the rule of a Tlatoani and could lead to rebellions of city states subjected by earlier rulers and to the Aztec nobility distrusting his ability to rule - this was the case for Tizoc who was poisoned by the Aztec nobles after several failed military campaigns. A tlatoani was a member of the Aztec nobility. ... Tízoc was the Aztec ruler (Tlatoani) of the city of Tenochtitlán. ...

Fortifications

The Aztecs didn't normally maintain tight territorial control within their empire but nonetheless there are examples of fortifications built by the Aztecs. Prominent examples are the strongholds at Oztuma (Oztoman ^[6]) where the Aztecs built a garrison to keep the rebellious Chontales in line, in Quauhquechollan (modern day Huauquechula) near Atlixco where the Aztecs built a garrison in order to always have forces close to their traditional enemies the Tlaxcalteca, Chololteca and Huexotzinca, and in Malinalco near Toluca where Ahuitzotl built garrisons and fortifications to keep watch over the Matlatzinca, Mazahua and Otomies and to always have troops close to the enemy Tarascan state - the borders with which were also guarded and at least partly fortified on both sides. The Tequistlatecan language group also called Chontal of Oaxaca consists of three distinct languages. ... Atlixco is a rapidly growing city and its surrounding municipality in the state of Puebla, Mexico. ... Picture from the History of Tlaxcala showing Cortés meeting with the Tlaxcallan messengers. ... The Roman Catholic church of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios overlooks the town of Cholula from atop the Great Pyramid. ... View over Malinalco Malinalco is a city in México State, Mexico. ... This article is about a city in Mexico. ... Auítzotl (sometimes rendered as Ahuitzotl) was the Aztec ruler of the city of Tenochtitlán. ... Matlatzinca is a name used to refer to different indigenous ethnic groups in the Toluca Valley in the state of Edo. ... Mazahua is an ethnic group living in the Ixtlahuaca District in Mexico. ... The Otomí are a Native American people living in the central plateau region of Mexico. ... The Tarascan state was a state in precolumbian Mesoamerica roughly covering the geographic area of the present day mexican state of Michoacan. ...

Flower War

Main article: Flower war

A second kind of warfare practiced by the Aztecs was referred to as Flower war (xochiyaoyotl^[7] ). This kind of warfare was fought by smaller armies after previous arrangement between the parties involved. This kind of warfare was not aimed directly at conquering the enemy city state, but served a number of other purposes. One often cited purpose is the taking of sacrificial captives and this was certainly an important part of most Aztec warfare. Friar Diego Durán and the chronicles based on the Crónica X states that the Xochiyayoyotl was instigated by Tlacaelel during the great Mesoamerican famine of 1450-1454 under the reign of Moctezuma I. These sources state that Tlacaelel arranged with the leaders of Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Huexotzinco, and Tliliuhquitepec to engage in ritual battles that would provide all parties with enough sacrificial victims to appease the gods. Ross Hassig (1988) however poses four main political purposes of xochiyaoyotl: 1.) this kind of warfare gave the Aztecs a chance to demonstrate their military might. Since the Aztec army was larger than their adversaries that were normally smaller city states and since the number of combatants on each side were fixed, the Aztec army were sending a much smaller percentage of their total forces than their opponents, losing a Flower War would then be less damaging for the Aztec army than for its opponents. 2.) This also meant that an objective was attrition - the large Aztec army could afford to engage in small scale warfare much more frequently than their opponents who would then gradually tire until they were ripe for actual conquest. 3.) It also allowed a ruler to maintain hostilities, at low intensity, while occupied by other matters. 4.) Mainly Xochiyaoyotl served as propaganda both towards other city states and to the Aztec people allowing the Aztec rulers to continuously demonstrate their might with a constant influx of war captives to Tenochtitlan. A flower war (or more correctly, flowery war) from the Nahuatl xochiyaoyotl; was, among the Aztec, a planned war in which the objective was not to kill enemies or conquer territory, but rather to capture as many prisoners as possible, who would then be sacrificed in religious ceremonies and maybe... A flower war (or more correctly, flowery war) from the Nahuatl xochiyaoyotl; was, among the Aztec, a planned war in which the objective was not to kill enemies or conquer territory, but rather to capture as many prisoners as possible, who would then be sacrificed in religious ceremonies and maybe... Diego Durán (c. ... Crónica X is the name given by Mesoamerican researchers to a postulated primary-source early 16th century historical work on the traditional history of the Aztec and other central Mexican peoples, which some researchers theorize formed the basis for several other extant 16th century documents. ... Tlacaelel (1397 - 1487) was the nephew of Itzcoatl (1427 - 1440) and brother of Moctezuma I (1440 - 1469), the first and second Mexica emperors. ... This article is about the culture area. ... // March - French troops under Guy de Richemont besiege the English commander in France, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, in Caen. ... Year 1454 was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, or Moctezuma I (also known as Montezuma I) (the surname meaning solitary one who shoots an arrow into the sky) was born to Huitzilihuitl, the second Aztec Emperor. ... Picture from the History of Tlaxcala showing Cortés meeting with the Tlaxcallan messengers. ... The Roman Catholic church of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios overlooks the town of Cholula from atop the Great Pyramid. ...

Organization

The Aztec army was organized into two layers. The commoners were organized into "wards" (calpulli ^[8] ) that were under the leadership of tiachcahuan^[9] and calpoleque ^[10]. The nobles were organized into professional warrior societies. Apart from the Tlatoani the war leaders of the Aztecs were the High General, the Tlacochcalcatl ^[11] and the General the Tlacateccatl ^[12] . The Tlacochcalcatl and Tlacateccatl also had to name successors prior to any battle so that if they died they could be immediately replaced. Priests also took part in warfare, carrying the effigies of deities into battle alongside the armies. Calpulli is the Nahuatl term for a group of families (or a single large family) that usually had a particular function in the Pre-Columbian society (such as priests, warriors, etc. ... Tlacochcalcatl pictured in the Codex Mendoza folio 67r. ... Tlacateccatl pictured in the Codex Mendoza folio 67r. ...

Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1038x630, 147 KB) The bottom part of Image:Codex Mendoza folio 67r. ...

Training

Sons of nobles were trained at the Calmecac ^[13] and received sophisticated training in warfare as well as in general courtly subjects such as astronomy, calendrics, rhetorics, poetry and religion. In the Aztec empire, children of nobility would attend special schools, called Calmecacs, where they would receive very rigorous religious and military training that would prepare them to be future leaders. ... For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation). ... The Tonalpohualli,the day-count in English, is the 260 day sacred calendar of early Mesoamericans. ... Rhetoric (from Greek ρητωρ, rhêtôr, orator) is one of the three original liberal arts or trivium (the other members are dialectic and grammar). ... This article is about the art form. ...

The sons of commoners were trained in the Telpochcalli ^[14] where they received basic military training and sometimes learned a trade.

Stratification and ranks

The commoners composed the bulk of the army, the lowest were porters (tlameme ^[15] ) who carried weapons and supplies, next came the youths of the telpochcalli led by their sergeants (the telpochyahque ^[16]) Next were the commoners yaoquizqueh. And finally there were commoners who had taken captives, the so-called tlamani^[17] .

Ranking above these came the nobles of the "warrior societies". These were ranked according to the number of captives they had taken in previous battles; the number of captives determined which of the different suits of honor (called tlahuiztli)^[18] they were allowed to wear. These tlahuiztli became gradually more spectacular as the ranks progressed, allowing the most excellent warriors who had taken many captives to stand out on the battlefield.

This page from the Codex Mendoza shows the gradual improvements to equipment and tlahuiztli as a warrior progresses through the ranks from commoner to porter to warrior to captor, and later as a noble progressing in the warrior societies from the noble warrior to "Eagle warrior" to "Jaguar Warrior" to "Otomitl" to "Shorn One" and finally as "Tlacateccatl".

Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (750x1092, 211 KB) Folio 20r of the Codex Mendoza, a mid-16th century Aztec codex. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (750x1092, 211 KB) Folio 20r of the Codex Mendoza, a mid-16th century Aztec codex. ... The first page of Codex Mendoza. ...

Warrior societies

Main article: Aztec warrior societies

Commoners excelling in warfare could be promoted to the noble class and could enter some of the warrior societies (at least the Eagles and Jaguars). Sons of nobles trained at the Calmecac however were expected to enter into one of the societies as they progressed through the ranks. Warriors could shift from one society and into another when they became sufficiently proficient; exactly how this happened is uncertain. Each society had different styles of dress and equipment as well as styles of body paint and adornments.

Eagle and Jaguar warriors

The largest warrior society was that of the Eagles (quauhtin^[19]) and the Jaguars (ocelomeh^[20]) . They dressed as the animal they took their name from, some wearing pelts of large felines and others adorned in eagle feathers. Many of these warriors are depicted as statues and in codices. Aztec poetry also frequently applies the diphrasal metaphor "In cuauhtli, in ocelotl" (the eagles, the jaguars) to refer to nobles in war. The Headquarter of the Eagles and Jaguars was the Quauhcalli "the Eagle House" located in the ceremonial precinct in Tenochtitlan. An Eagle warrior (left) depicted holding a macuahuitl in the Florentine Codex Eagle warriors or eagle knights (Classical Nahuatl: cuāuhtli) were a special class of infantry soldier of the Aztec army. ... Aztec jaguar warrior Jaguar warriors (Classical Nahuatl: ocēlōtl) were certain members of the Aztec army that were professional soldiers. ...

Otomies

Main article: Otomi (military)

The Otomies (Otontin ^[21])were another warrior society who took their name after the Otomi people who were renowned for their fierce fighting. In the historical sources it is often difficult to discern whether the word otomitl "Otomi" refers to members of the Aztec warrior society, or members of the ethnic group who also often joined the Aztec armies as mercenaries or allies. The Otomi or Otontin were an elite Aztec military order, named after the Otomi people. ... The Otomi are an indigenous people of central Mexico. ...

The Shorn Ones

The "Shorn Ones" (Cuachicqueh ^[22]) was the most prestigious warrior society - their heads were shaved apart from a long braid over the left ear. Their bald heads and faces were painted one half blue and another half red or yellow. They had sworn not to take a step backwards during a battle on pain of death at the hands of their comrades.

Equipment

Ranged weapons

Aztec jaguar warrior (ocelōtl) with shield (chimalli) and obsidian sword (mācuahuitl)

Atlatl: The Aztec spear thrower was a weapon used to hurl small spears or javelins called "tlacochtli" with greater force and from greater range than they could be thrown by hand. Murals at Teotihuacan show warriors using this effective weapon and it is characteristic of the Mesoamerican cultures of central Mexico. The Image File history File links Download high resolution version (601x705, 33 KB) Summary Aztek jaguar warrior, from the Codex Magliabechiano Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Jaguar warrior ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (601x705, 33 KB) Summary Aztek jaguar warrior, from the Codex Magliabechiano Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Jaguar warrior ... An atlatl (from Nahuatl ahtlatl ; in English pronounced [1] or [2]) or spear-thrower is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in spear-throwing, and includes a bearing surface which allows the user to temporarily store energy during the throw. ... Teotihuacan was the largest Pre-Columbian known city in the Americas, and the name Teotihuacan is used to refer to the civilization this city dominated, which at its greatest extent included most of Mesoamerica. ...

Tlahuitolli: a bow.

Mitl: arrow

Micomitl: Aztec arrow quiver.

Yaomitl: war arrows with barbed obsidian points.

Tematlatl: a stone sling. made from maguey fiber.

Mêlée weapons

Macuahuitl: "Hand stick", essentially a wooden sword with sharp obsidian blades embedded into its sides. This was the standard armament of the elite cadres. Also known in Spanish by the Taino word "macana". A blow from such a sword was reputedly capable of decapitating a horse.^[23] A mêlée weapon is any weapon that does not involve a projectile — that is, both the user and target of the weapon are in contact with it simultaneously in normal use. ... Drawing of a 15th century macahuitl The maquahuitl, an Aztec obsidian-edged sword-club, was a devastating cutting weapon capable of easily cleaving to bone (according to a Spanish account, it was capable of easily decapitating a horse), but lacked a point (and thus couldnt be used for thrusting... Obsidian was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. ... The Taíno are the pre-Hispanic Amerindian inhabitants of the Greater Antilles, which includes Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica and the Bahamas. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Tepoztopilli: Wooden lance with sharp obsidian stones in the top. The tepoztopilli was a common front-lines weapon of the aztec military. ...

Quauhololli: a simple club with a spherical wooden ball at the end.

Huitzauhqui: a wooden club with inlaid obsidian blades. This article is about a type of volcanic glass. ...

Armor

Chimalli: shields made by different materials such as the wooden shield "cuauhchimalli" or maize cane "otlachimalli". There were also ornamental shields decorated with motifs made in featherwork, these were called māhuizzoh chimalli. This article is about the maize plant. ...

Ichcahuipilli: quilted cotton armour. One or two fingers thick, this material was resistant to swords and atlatl darts.

Ehuatl: the tunic that some noble warriors wore over their cotton armour or tlahuiztli.

Tlahuiztli: the distinctively decorated suits of prestigious warriors and members of warrior societies.

Pamitl: the banner that excellent and notable warriors and officers wore on their backs. They were often personalized so that they could be seen and recognized from a distance.

Campaigns and battles

Once the decision of going to war was made the news were proclaimed in the plazas calling for mobilization of the army for several days or weeks in advance. When the troops were ready and any allied cities had been alerted and had given their consent to partake in the campaign the march began. Usually the first to march were the priests carrying the effigies, the next day the nobles marched led by the Tlacochcalcatl and Tlacateccatl. And on the third day the main bulk of the army set out with the Tenochca marching first followed by the warriors from the other cities in the alliance (Tepanecas and Texcocas) and lastly the allied forces from other cities, some of these subject cities would also join in gradually during the march as the army passed by their cities. Thanks to the efficient system of roads maintained throughout central Mexico the army marched an estimated average of 19-32 kilometers pr day.^[24]The size of the Aztec army varied considerably from small contingents of some one, to a few thousand warriors to large armies with tens to hundreds of thousands of warriors. In the war against Coixtlahuacan the Aztec army numbered 200,000 warriors and 100,000 porters. Other sources mention Aztec armies of up to 700,000 men.

Combat

Battles usually started at dawn - smoke signals were used to show that a battle was beginning and to coordinate attacks between different divisions of the army. The signal to attack was given by musical instruments such as drums and the conch shell trumpet (the Tlapitzalli). Usually the battle began with projectile fire - the bulk of the army was composed of commoners often armed with bows or slings. Then the warriors advanced into melee combat and during this phase, before the actual melee, the atlatl was used - this missile weapon was effective over shorter distances than slings and bows but much more lethal. The first warriors to enter into melee were the most distinguished warriors of the Cuachicque and the Otontin societies; then came the Eagles and Jaguars; and lastly the commoners and unpracticed youths. Until entering into melee order rank was maintained and the Aztecs would try to surround or outflank the enemy, but once the melee began the ranks dissolved into a fray of individual hand-to-hand fighting. Youths participating in battle for the first time would usually not be allowed to fight before the Aztec victory was ensured, after which they would try to capture prisoners from the fleeing enemy. It is said that, particularly during flowery wars, Aztec warriors would try to capture rather than kill their foes, sometimes striving to cut a hamstring or otherwise incapacitate their opponents. This has been used as an argument to explain the defeat of the Aztecs by the Spanish but it is no longer considered to be probable - since sources clearly state that Aztecs did kill their Spanish opponents whenever they had the chance. Other Aztec tactical maneuvers included feigned retreats and ambushes where small portions of Aztec forces would attack and then fall back and lure the enemy into a trap where many more warriors were hidden in the terrain. If a defending enemy retreated into their city the battle was continued there - but normally the objective was to conquer a city not destroy it. Once the city was conquered the main temple would be set on fire signaling far and wide, to all concerned, the Aztec victory. If enemies still refused to surrender the rest of the city could be burned as well, but this was uncommon.^[25] A tlapitzalli is a musical instrument known from pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, particularly the Aztec. ...

See also

• Jaguar Warrior
• Eagle Warrior
• Atlatl
• Macana
• Macuahuitl
• Tepoztopilli
• Army
• Military forces

Aztec jaguar warrior Jaguar warriors (Classical Nahuatl: ocēlōtl) were certain members of the Aztec army that were professional soldiers. ... An Eagle warrior (left) depicted holding a macuahuitl in the Florentine Codex Eagle warriors or eagle knights (Classical Nahuatl: cuāuhtli) were a special class of infantry soldier of the Aztec army. ... An atlatl (from Nahuatl ahtlatl ; in English pronounced [1] or [2]) or spear-thrower is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in spear-throwing, and includes a bearing surface which allows the user to temporarily store energy during the throw. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Drawing of a 15th century macahuitl The maquahuitl, an Aztec obsidian-edged sword-club, was a devastating cutting weapon capable of easily cleaving to bone (according to a Spanish account, it was capable of easily decapitating a horse), but lacked a point (and thus couldnt be used for thrusting... The tepoztopilli was a common front-lines weapon of the aztec military. ... For other uses, see Army (disambiguation). ... Alternate cover US 1979 and 2002 reissue cover, also known as paint spatter cover For the military meaning, see Armed forces. ...

Notes

References

• Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2121-1.