Most historians view the background of the Vietnam War, and the nature of the war itself, as rooted in the history of French colonial French Indochina, and the growing ethnic, political, and economic division between minority Western-allied Catholic and majority independence-oriented Buddhist Vietnamese. When World War II ended, and Japanese forces surrendered to various local authorities in Southeast Asia, Vietnam was by circumstance divided into North and South regions of control, by Vietnamese Liberation Army forces in the north, and British and French (Free French) forces in the South. France, prompted by nationalists-expansionists like General Charles de Gaulle, demanded a return of its overseas colonies in French Indochina and elsewhere. (See also History of Vietnam.) The Vietnam War or Second Indochina War was a conflict between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN, or North Vietnam), allied with the National Liberation Front (NLF, or Viet Cong) against the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, or South Vietnam), and their allies—notably the United States military in support of... French Indochina was a federation of French colonies and protectorates in Southeast Asia, part of the French colonial empire. ... Statues of Buddha such as this, the Tian Tan Buddha statue in Hong Kong, remind followers to practice right living. ... World War II was a truly global conflict with many facets: immense human suffering, fierce indoctrinations, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons like the atom bomb World War II, also known as the Second World War, was by far the bloodiest, most expensive, and most significant war in... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ... The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres in French) were French fighters who decided to go on fighting against Germany after the Fall of France and German occupation and to fight against Vichy France in World War II. General Charles de Gaulle was a member of the French Cabinet in... // Nationalism because merrit is donkey. ... Expansionism is the doctrine of expanding the territory or economic influence of a country. ... General Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (   listen?) (November 22, 1890 – November 9, 1970), in France commonly referred to as le général de Gaulle, was a French military leader and statesman. ... The History of Vietnam dates back more than 4,000 years. ...

Washington's desire for a more uniform postwar European economy and European cooperation on a variety of other matters, however, proved more important than Roosevelt's call for the dissolution of Europe's empires. The U.S., since the end of World War II the predominant military power in Western Europe, considered French cooperation as vital in the postwar period, and because successive French governments threatened to become more uncooperative in Europe if the United States refused to accede to their demands overseas, Washington committed itself to a policy of supporting the French colonial regime in Indochina. According to Herring (1986, p. 23.), the "French repeatedly warned that they could not furnish troops for European defense without generous American support in Indochina, a ploy Secretary of State Dean Acheson accurately described as 'blackmail'." Dean Acheson Dean Gooderham Acheson (April 11, 1893 – October 12, 1971) was a United States Secretary of State under President Harry S. Truman. ...

Containment

Many American foreign policy theorists by the beginning of the 1950s, moreover, had been more or less won over by the twin doctrines of containment, as proposed in 1947 by George Kennan, and the domino theory, which held that if one country "fell" to communism, its neighbors would be soon to follow. The latter of these doctrines often assumed a good deal of vertical unity in international communist movements, directed by Soviet dictator Josef Stalin and his successors. While this was largely true of European communist parties (with the exception of Yugoslav leader Tito), the situation was somewhat different in Asia. // Events and trends The 1950s in Western society was marked with a sharp rise in the economy for the first time in almost 30 years and return to the 1920s-type consumer society built on credit and boom-times, as well as the height of the baby-boom from returning... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... 1947 was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Several notable people have been named George Kennan: George Kennan (explorer) (1845-1924) George F. Kennan (born 1904), diplomat and historian; the explorers great-nephew This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The domino theory was the idea that if one key nation in a region came under the control of Communists, others would follow one after the other. ... Soviet redirects here. ... Joseph Stalin Iosif (Joseph) Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин), original name Ioseb Jughashvili (Georgian: იოსებ ჯუღაშვილი; see Other names section) (December 21, 18791 – March 5, 1953) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and a political leader in the Soviet Union. ... Josip Broz Tito (May 7, 1892 - May 4, 1980) was the ruler of Yugoslavia between the end of World War II and his death in 1980. ...

The internal political climate of the United States also contributed to Washington's commitment in Southeast Asia. The well-known campaign of Senator Joseph McCarthy put considerable pressure on the ruling Democrats to be tougher on communism. Levelling the charge that the Democrats had "sold out" Eastern Europe, in particular Poland, at the Yalta Conference in 1945, and that they were therefore "soft on communism," McCarthy's attacks prompted President Truman to pursue a harder line on international communist movements, in Korea as well as Vietnam. Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician originally aligned with the Democratic Party and later with the Republican Party. ... The Democratic Party is one of two major political parties in the United States. ... Western betrayal is a popular term in several Central European nations (including Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia) which refers to the foreign policy of several Western countries during the period from the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 through World War II and to the Cold War. ... The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, was the wartime meeting from February 4 to 11, 1945 between the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. ... 1945 was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... For the victim of Mt. ... Korea (한국/韓國/Hanguk, used by South / 조선/朝鮮/Joseon, used by North) is a formerly unified country, situated on the Korean Peninsula in northern East Asia, bordering on China to the northwest and Russia to the north. ...

After taking power in 1953, the Republican administration of President Eisenhower accepted the Indochina policy established by the Truman Administration and its foreign policy corps essentially without modification. Support for the French colonial regime was continued, on the pretense that the French were fighting towards the ultimate independence of Vietnam, as well as the defeat of the communists. 1953 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... The Republican Party, often called the GOP (for Grand Old Party, although one early citation described it as the Gallant Old Party [1]), is one of the two major political parties in the United States. ... Dwight David Ike Eisenhower (October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), American soldier and politician, was the 34th President of the United States (1953–1961) and Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, with the rank of General of the Army. ... For the victim of Mt. ...

The Rise of Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh

On August 13, 1945, the ICP Central Committee held its Ninth Plenum at Tan Trao to prepare an agenda for a National Congress of the Viet Minh a few days later. At the plenum, convened just after the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, an order for a general uprising was issued, and a national insurrection committee was established headed by ICP general secretary Truong Chinh (see Development of the Vietnamese Communist Party , ch. 4; Appendix B). On August 16, the Viet Minh National Congress convened at Tan Trao and ratified the Central Committee decision to launch a general uprising. The Congress also elected a National Liberation Committee, headed by Ho Chi Minh (who was gravely ill at the time), to serve as a provisional government. The following day, the Congress, at a ceremony in front of the village dinh, officially adopted the national red flag with a gold star, and Ho read an appeal to the Vietnamese people to rise in revolution.

By the end of the first week following the Tan Trao conference, most of the provincial and district capitals north of Hanoi had fallen to the revolutionary forces. When the news of the Japanese surrender reached Hanoi on August 16, the local Japanese military command turned over its powers to the local Vietnamese authorities. By August 17, Viet Minh units in the Hanoi suburbs had deposed the local administrations and seized the government seals symbolizing political authority. Selfdefense units were set up and armed with guns, knives, and sticks. Meanwhile, Viet Minh-led demonstrations broke out inside Hanoi. The following morning, a member of the Viet Minh Municipal Committee announced to a crowd of 200,000 gathered in Ba Dinh Square that the general uprising had begun. The crowd broke up immediately after that and headed for various key buildings around the city, including the palace, city hall, and police headquarters, where they accepted the surrender of the Japanese and local Vietnamese government forces, mostly without resistance. The Viet Minh sent telegrams throughout Tonkin announcing its victory, and local Viet Minh units were able to take over most of the provincial and district capitals without a struggle. In Annam and Cochinchina, however, the Communist victory was less assured because the ICP in those regions had neither the advantage of long, careful preparation nor an established liberated base area and army. Hue fell in a manner similar to Hanoi, with the takeover first of the surrounding area. Saigon fell on August 25 to the Viet Minh, who organized a nine-member, multiparty Committee of the South, including six members of the Viet Minh, to govern the city. The provinces south and west of Saigon, however, remained in the hands of the Hoa Hao. Although the Hoa Hao and Cao Dai were anti-French, both were more interested in regional autonomy than in communist-led national independence. As a result, clashes between the Hoa Hao and the Viet Minh broke out in the Mekong Delta in September.

Ho Chi Minh moved his headquarters to Hanoi shortly after the Viet Minh takeover of the city. On August 28, the Viet Minh announced the formation of the provisional government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) with Ho as president and minister of foreign affairs. Vo Nguyen Giap was named minister of interior and Pham Van Dong minister of finance. In order to broaden support for the new government, several noncommunists were also included. Emperor Bao Dai, whom the communists had forced to abdicate on August 25, was given the position of high counselor to the new government. On September 2, half a million people gathered in Ba Dinh Square to hear Ho read the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence, based on the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. After indicting the French colonial record in Vietnam, he closed with an appeal to the victorious Allies to recognize the independence of Vietnam.

Despite the heady days of August, major problems lay ahead for the ICP. Noncommunist political parties, which had been too weak and disorganized to take advantage of the political vacuum left by the fall of the Japanese, began to express opposition to communist control of the new provisional government. Among these parties, the nationalist VNQDD and Viet Nam Phuc Quoc Dong Minh Hoi parties had the benefit of friendship with the Chinese expeditionary forces of Chiang Kai-shek, which began arriving in northern Vietnam in early September. At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the Allies had agreed that the Chinese would accept the surrender of the Japanese in Indochina north of the 16°N parallel and the British, south of that line. The Vietnamese nationalists, with the help of Chinese troops, seized some areas north of Hanoi, and the VNQDD subsequently set up an opposition newspaper in Hanoi to denounce "red terror." The communists gave high priority to avoiding clashes with Chinese troops, which soon numbered 180,000. To prevent such encounters, Ho ordered VLA troops to avoid provoking any incidents with the Chinese and agreed to the Chinese demand that the communists negotiate with the Vietnamese nationalist parties. Accordingly, in November 1945, the provisional government began negotiations with the VNQDD and the Viet Nam Phuc Quoc Dong Minh Hoi, both of which initially took a hard line in their demands. The communists resisted, however, and the final agreement called for a provisional coalition government with Ho as president and nationalist leader Nguyen Hai Than as vice president. In the general elections scheduled for early January, 50 of the 350 National Assembly seats were to be reserved for the VNQDD and 20, for Viet Nam Phuc Quoc Dong Minh Hoi, regardless of the results of the balloting.

At the same time, the communists were in a far weaker political position in Cochinchina because they faced competition from the well-organized, economically influential, moderate parties based in Saigon and from the Hoa Hao and Cao Dai in the countryside. Moreover, the commander of the British expeditionary forces, which arrived in early September, was unsympathetic to Vietnamese desires for independence. French troops, released from Japanese prisons and rearmed by the British, provoked incidents and seized control of the city. A general strike called by the Vietnamese led to clashes with the French troops and mob violence in the French sections of the city. Negotiations between the French and the Committee of the South broke down in early October, as French troops began to occupy towns in the Mekong Delta. Plagued by clashes with the religious sects, lack of weapons, and a high desertion rate, the troops of the Viet Minh were driven deep into the delta, forests, and other inaccessible areas of the region.

Meanwhile, in Hanoi, candidates supported by the Viet Minh won 300 seats in the National Assembly in the January 1946 elections. In early March, however, the threat of the imminent arrival of French troops in the north forced Ho to negotiate a compromise with France. Under the terms of the agreement, the French government recognized the DRV as a free state with its own army, legislative body, and financial powers, in return for Hanoi's acceptance of a small French military presence in northern Vietnam and membership in the French Union. Both sides agreed to a plebiscite in Cochinchina. The terms of the accord were generally unpopular with the Vietnamese and were widely viewed as a sell-out of the revolution. Ho, however, foresaw grave danger in refusing to compromise while the country was still in a weakened position. Soon after the agreement was signed, some 15,000 French troops arrived in Tonkin, and both the Vietnamese and the French began to question the terms of the accord. Negotiations to implement the agreement began in late spring at Fontainbleau, near Paris, and dragged on throughout the summer. Ho signed a modus vivendi (temporary agreement), which gave the Vietnamese little more than the promise of negotiation of a final treaty the following January, and returned to Vietnam.

The End of French Involvement

It is generally accepted that the United States funded approximately one-third of the French attempts to retain control of Vietnam, in the face of resistance from the Viet Minh independence movement led by Communist Party leader Ho Chi Minh. The French, however, failing to make headway against Ho and under increasing pressure from Washington to make good on their end of the bargain, adopted tougher measures by 1953. For instance, the so-called Navarre Plan called for a buttressing of the Vietnamese National Guard and the deployment of an additional nine battalions of French troops. The French made a request for $400 million in American assistance, of which $385 million was ultimately given. This discrepancy has often led to the charge that the United States failed to adequately fund French efforts to crush the rebellion early. (Herring, 1986, p. 27) The Navarre Plan ultimately failed to end the fighting, however. After the Viet Minh defeated the French colonial army at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, the French military withdrew, and the colony gained independence. The Viet Minh (abbreviated from Việt Nam ộc Lập ồng Minh Hội, League for the Independence of Vietnam) was formed by Ho Ngoc Lam and Nguyen Hai Than in 1941 to seek independence for Vietnam from France. ... Hồ Chí Minh Hồ Chí Minh (meaning Ho, Enlightened Will) (Chữ nôm: 胡志明)   listen? (May 19, 1890 – September 2, 1969) was a Vietnamese revolutionary and statesman, who later became Prime Minister (1954) and President (1954 - 1969) of North Vietnam. ... The Battle of Dien Bien Phu (Chiến dịch Điện Biên Phủ) occurred in 1954 between Viet Minh forces under Vo Nguyen Giap and French airborne and Foreign Legion forces. ...

The issue of increasing US involvement in Vietnam was by this point already proving to be divisive in Washington. President Eisenhower, seeing a resurgent isolationism in the Congress, was reluctant to overtly commit US forces to region, even to support the faltering French forces at Dien Bien Phu. On whether to sortie an air strike in support of the French, Eisenhower believed that if it were done, the US would have to deny it forever. Dwight David Ike Eisenhower (October 14, 1890–March 28, 1969), American soldier and politician, was the 34th President of the United States (1953–1961) and supreme commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, with the rank of General of the Army. ... Isolationism is a diplomatic policy whereby a nation seeks to avoid alliances with other nations. ... Dien Bien Phu (Điện Biên Phủ) is a small town in northwestern Vietnam. ...

Unwilling to directly support French colonialism, and somewhat disillusioned by the mixed results of American intervention in Korea, Congress instead opted for Secretary of State John Foster Dulles' proposal for "United Action" in Southeast Asia. "United Action" was an outgrowth of the Eisenhower Administration's "New Look" policy, whereby local forces should be called upon for the defense of their territories rather than relying on direct US military involvement. "United Action" called for Vietnamese forces to be responsible for the defense of Vietnam, although with US assistance. The direct results of "United Action" were Washington's tacit acceptance of the upcoming Geneva Accords and the creation of SEATO, a coalition of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan to draw a firm line against communist expansion and make war in Southeast Asia less likely. The signatories would share the military burdens of protecting Southeast Asia from "indirect aggression." This was certainly more diplomatic than the later more or less unilateral US intervention turned out to be, but it was a stop-gap measure which reflected the widespread opposition of the American people to further involvement in Asia. The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁/韓國戰爭), from June 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953, was a conflict between North Korea and South Korea. ... John Foster Dulles John Foster Dulles (February 2, 1888 – May 24, 1959) was an American statesman who served as Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from (1953 - 1959). ... External links kamouflage. ...

Thus, the later ferocity of the conflict was a partial outgrowth of American ambivalence to Vietnam in the 1950s. Hoping to prevent another Korea, the United States ensured that an even worse conflict would ensue. Some argue that had the United States been willing to intervene on behalf of the French at Dien Bien Phu, a French withdrawal could then have been arranged. As Washington was unwilling to support French colonialism, yet still determined to prevent a communist takeover in Vietnam, it instead pursued a middle policy which acquiesced in the creation and entrenchment of strong communist forces in Vietnam, which ultimately proved impossible to defeat.

The Partition of Vietnam and the Diem Government

According to the ensuing Geneva Conference, Vietnam was partitioned, ostensibly temporarily, into a Northern and a Southern zone of Viet-Nam. The former was to be ruled by Ho Chi Minh, while the latter would be under the control of Emperor Bao Dai. In 1955, the South Vietnamese monarchy was abolished and Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem became President of a new South Vietnamese republic. The Geneva Conference (April 26 - July 21, 1954) was a conference between many countries that agreed to restore peace in Indochina and Korea. ... Emperor Bao Dai Bảo Đại (保大) (October 22, 1913–July 30, 1997) was the last Emperor of Vietnam, the 13th and last Emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty. ... Ngô Đình Diệm Ngô Đình Diệm (吳廷琰, approximately pronounced Ngoh Din Yim   listen?) (January 3, 1901 – November 2, 1963) was the first President of the Republic of Vietnam (1955–63). ...

Once again, the geopolitical climate of Europe dictated the flow of events in Vietnam. The French, under increasing domestic pressure, due in part to the escalating Cold War, sought conciliation with the Soviet Union in the wake of Stalin's death in 1953, which had convinced many that a Russian attack on Western Europe was less imminent. As a result, the Soviet Union and communist China were invited to Geneva. Their influence at the conference clearly had a concrete impact in the form of the materialization of Ho's North Vietnam. 1953 is a common year starting on Thursday. ...

The Geneva Conference (1954) specified that elections to unify the country would be scheduled to take place in July, 1956, but such elections were never held. In the context of the Cold War, the United States (under Eisenhower) had begun to view Southeast Asia as a potential key battleground in the greater Cold War, and American policymakers feared that democratic elections would allow communists to influence the South Vietnamese government. The Geneva Conference (April 26 - July 21, 1954) was a conference between many countries that agreed to restore peace in Indochina and Korea. ... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ...

At this point, South Vietnam came under the control of the US-backed Ngo Dinh Diem, an anti-communist exile previously residing in New Jersey. Over French objections, the United States sought to install Diem because he was regarded as a staunch nationalist who could more adequately oversee the construction of a pro-Western South Vietnam than the Emperor, Bao Dai. Ngô Đình Diệm Ngô Đình Diệm (吳廷琰, approximately pronounced Ngoh Din Yim   listen?) (January 3, 1901 – November 2, 1963) was the first President of the Republic of Vietnam (1955–63). ... Emperor Bao Dai Bảo Đại (保大) (October 22, 1913–July 30, 1997) was the last Emperor of Vietnam, the 13th and last Emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty. ...

Diem's early regime was troubled by the so-called sect crisis of 1955. The Cao Dai and Hoa Hao religious sects were among the most potent political factions in Vietnam in the wake of the partition. They effectively controlled huge rural areas and maintained their own private armies. In addition, the Binh Xuyen, something of a mafia organization, also wielded immense influence and military strength. Their challenge to Diem's fledgling government cast serious doubt on the likelihood of success of the American efforts in Vietnam, and many began to expect an ultimate US withdrawal. Although it initially appeared that Diem would be unable to resist the pressures of these organizations, his startlingly successful (and US-backed) campaigns against them in 1955 prompted a deeper American commitment. Convinced that if Diem could handle the insurgency of the sects he could tackle the Viet Minh, the suddenly enthusiastic support of many Congressional leaders in Washington helped to produce "an American policy reversal of enormous long-range significance." (Herring, 54) 1955 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Tay Ninh Holy See Cao Dai (高台; Vn: Cao Đài, Ch: Gaotaijiao) is a monotheistic religion. ... Hoa Hao Buddhism is a religious tradition founded in 1939 by Prophet Huynh Phu So, a native of the Mekong River Delta region of southern Vietnam. ... The Viet Minh (abbreviated from Việt Nam ộc Lập ồng Minh Hội, League for the Independence of Vietnam) was formed by Ho Ngoc Lam and Nguyen Hai Than in 1941 to seek independence for Vietnam from France. ...

Washington hoped that its influence would be perceived as less overtly colonial than that of the French. Dulles, on the premise that a communist leadership would under no circumstances allow free elections, argued that it was in US interests to allow Diem to hold a rigged referendum ahead of the elections mandated by the Geneva Conference. Given the solvency of the Diem government apparently shown by its victory over the sects, maintaining a strong anti-communist government in Saigon proved more important than adherence to democratic processes. Diem promptly "won" public support in the 1955 referendum, infamously receiving over 600,000 votes from the approximately 400,000 eligible voters in Saigon. 1955 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnamese: Thành Phố Hồ Chí Minh) is the largest city in Vietnam and, as Saigon (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn), was the capital of South Vietnam from 1954 to 1976. ...

In the hopes of preventing another political crisis akin to China or Korea, the United States lavished support on South Vietnam. Unfortunately, most of the aid proferred was squandered on projects that did little to foster economic development in the South, and did almost nothing for the rural peasantry, which made up about 90% of the population. For instance, the majority of imports were consumer goods, which, paid for by American aid, did much to artificially inflate the standard of living in Saigon, but next to nothing for other areas. Economically, it was a precarious house of cards. At the same time, Diem pursued ruthlessly repressive measures to protect his authority, using his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu to jail or intimidate much of the political opposition, only fostering deeper resentment of what was already an unpopular government. Ngo Dinh Nhu Ngo Dinh Nhu was born in Vietnam, he was the younger brother and chief political advisor of South Vietnams first President Ngo Dinh Diem and their brother Bishop Thuc of Hue. ...

Diem's RVN government had gained the support of the US to circumvent the scheduled democratic elections, and under Diem's dictatorship, South Vietnam would be free of both socialism, and a democratic process that threatened to irreversibly install it. The North Vietnamese had been winning the public relations battle; it had implemented a massive agricultural reform program which distributed land to peasant farmers, and the people of the South took notice. President Eisenhower noted in his memoirs:

"I have never talked or corresponded with a person knowledgeable in Indochinese affairs who did not agree that had elections been held at the time of the fighting, possibly 80 per cent of the population would have voted for the communist Ho Chi Minh."

It was also said to have been unlikely that the North would allow a free election in their half of Vietnam. In the end, neither the US nor the two Vietnams signed the election clause in the accord. Initially, it appeared as if a partitioned Vietnam would become the norm, similar in nature to the partitioned Korea created years earlier. Korea (한국/韓國/Hanguk, used by South / 조선/朝鮮/Joseon, used by North) is a formerly unified country, situated on the Korean Peninsula in northern East Asia, bordering on China to the northwest and Russia to the north. ...