[1]

Drawing of the 3 pieces.

The Baghdad Battery is the common name for a number of artifacts probably discovered in the village of Khuyut Rabbou'a (near Baghdad, Iraq) in 1936. These artifacts came to wider attention in 1938, when Wilhelm König, the German director of the National Museum of Iraq, found the objects in the museum's collections, and in 1940 (having returned to Berlin due to illness) published a paper speculating that they may have been galvanic cells, perhaps used for electroplating gold onto silver objects. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Khujut Rabu is a local area to the South-East of Baghdad, Iraq in modern times. ... Baghdad (Arabic: ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... Wilhelm König was a German archaeologist, and the discoverer of the Baghdad Battery. ... An American Tank guards the Museum following the 2003 Invasion of Iraq The National Museum of Iraq is located in Baghdad, Iraq. ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... The Galvanic cell, named after Luigi Galvani, consists of two different metals connected by a salt bridge or a porous disk between the individual half-cells. ... Electroplating is the process of using Davd lloyd current to coat an electrically conductive object with a relatively thin layer of metal. ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Standard atomic weight 196. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Standard atomic weight 107. ...

Description and dating

The artifacts consist of ~130mm (~5 inch) tall terracotta jars (with a one and a half inch mouth) containing a copper cylinder made of a rolled-up copper sheet, which houses a single iron rod. At the top, the iron rod is isolated from the copper by asphalt plugs or stoppers, and both rod and cylinder fit snugly inside the opening of the jar which bulges outward towards the middle (reverse hourglass shape). The copper cylinder is not watertight, so when the jar was filled with a liquid, this would surround the iron rod as well. The artifact had been exposed to the weather and had suffered corrosion, although mild given the presence of an electrochemical couple. This has led some scholars to believe lemon juice, grape juice, or vinegar was used as an acidic agent to jumpstart the electrochemical reaction with the two metals. Terra cotta is a hard semifired waterproof ceramic clay used in pottery and building construction. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ... A right circular cylinder An elliptic cylinder In mathematics, a cylinder is a quadric surface, with the following equation in Cartesian coordinates: This equation is for an elliptic cylinder, a generalization of the ordinary, circular cylinder (a = b). ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... Asphalt is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits. ... A demonstration electrochemical cell setup resembling the Daniell cell. ... Binomial name Citrus X limon {{{author}}} Lemons are the citrus fruit from the tree Citrus X limon. ... Concord grapes being cooked down into grape juice for use in making jelly. ... Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano. ...

König thought the objects might be Parthian (between 250 BC and 224 AD) because the Parthian village where they were excavated was under Parthian rule at the time. However according to Dr. St. John Simpson of the Near Eastern department of the British Museum, their original excavation and context were not well recorded (see stratigraphy), so evidence for this date range is very weak. Furthermore, the style of the pottery (see typology) is Sassanid (224-640), so they are probably much more recent than König thought. Parthia[1] (Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was a civilization situated in the northeast of modern Iran, but at its height covering all of Iran proper, as well as regions of the modern countries of Armenia, Iraq, Georgia, eastern Turkey, eastern Syria, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Kuwait, the Persian Gulf... Events Shah Artashir I wins Persian independence from Parthia and establishes the Sassanid dynasty. ... Parthia[1] (Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was a civilization situated in the northeast of modern Iran, but at its height covering all of Iran proper, as well as regions of the modern countries of Armenia, Iraq, Georgia, eastern Turkey, eastern Syria, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Kuwait, the Persian Gulf... Overview map of the Ancient Near East The term Ancient Near East or Ancient Orient encompasses the early civilizations predating Classical Antiquity in the region roughly corresponding to that described by the modern term Middle East (Egypt, Iraq, Turkey), during the time roughly spanning the Bronze Age from the rise... The British Museum in London, England is one of the worlds greatest museums of human history and culture. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The word typology literally means the study of types. ... The Sassanid Empire in the time of Shapur I; the conquest of Cappadocia was temporary Official language Pahlavi (Middle Persian) Dominant Religion Zoroastrianism Capital Ctesiphon Sovereigns Shahanshah of the Iran (Eranshahr) First Ruler Ardashir I Last Ruler Yazdegerd III Establishment 224 AD Dissolution 651 AD Part of the History of...

Most of the components of the objects are not particularly amenable to advanced dating methods. The ceramic pots could be analysed by thermoluminescence dating, but this has apparently not yet been done; in any case, it would only date the firing of the pots, which is not necessarily the same as when the complete artifact was assembled. Another possibility would be ion diffusion analysis, which could indicate how long the objects were buried. Archaeological science (also known as Archaeometry) is the application of scientific techniques and methodologies to archaeology. ... Thermoluminescence (TL) dating is the determination by means of measuring the accumulated radiation dose of the time elapsed since material containing crystalline minerals was either heated (lava, ceramics) or exposed to sunlight (sediments). ...

Speculations on function

Electrical

Copper and iron form an electrochemical couple, so that in the presence of any electrolyte, an electric potential (voltage) will be produced. König had observed a number of very fine silver objects from ancient Iraq which were plated with very thin layers of gold, and speculated that they were electroplated using batteries of these "cells". After the Second World War, Willard Gray demonstrated current production by a reconstruction of the inferred battery design when filled with grape juice. W. Jansen experimented with benzoquinone (some beetles produce quinones) and vinegar in a cell and got satisfactory performance. An electrolyte is a substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Symbols representing a single Cell (top) and Battery (bottom), used in circuit diagrams. ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ... In electricity, current refers to electric current, which is the flow of electric charge. ... It has been suggested that Veraison be merged into this article or section. ... Quinone is generally defined as an aromatic beneze molecule containing a double ketone functional group. ... Suborders Adephaga Archostemata Myxophaga Polyphaga See subgroups of the order Coleoptera Beetles are the most diverse group of insects. ... A quinone (or benzoquinone) is either one of the two isomers of cyclohexadienedione or a derivative thereof. ...

However, even among those who believe the artifacts were electrical devices, electroplating as a use is not well regarded today. The gilded objects which König thought might be electroplated are now believed to have been fire-gilded (with mercury). Reproduction experiments of electroplating by Dr. Arne Eggebrecht consumed "many" reproduction cells to achieve a plated layer just one micrometre thick. Other scientists noted that Dr. Eggebrecht used a more efficient, modern electrolyte; using only vinegar, the "battery" is very feeble. A gilded Tibetan Vajrasattva Gilding is the art of applying metal leaf (most commonly gold or silver leaf) to a surface. ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight 200. ...

An alternative, but still electrical explanation was offered by Paul Keyser. It was suggested that a priest or healer, using an iron spatula to compound a vinegar based potion in a copper vessel, may have felt an electrical tingle, and used the phenomenon either for electro-acupuncture, or to amaze supplicants by electrifying a metal statue.

The Discovery Channel program MythBusters determined that it was indeed plausible for ancient peoples to have used the Baghdad Battery for electroplating or electrostimulation. However, the batteries which they reproduced did not produce a substantial amount of energy and had to be connected in series in order to test the theories. Discovery Channel is a United States-based TV channel founded by John Hendricks. ... MythBusters is an American popular science television program on the Discovery Channel starring special effects experts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman, who use basic elements of the scientific method to test the validity of various rumors and urban legends in popular culture. ...

Nonelectrical

Skeptical archaeologists see the electrical experiments as embodying a key problem with experimental archaeology; such experiments can only show that something was physically possible, they say nothing about whether it actually occurred. Further, there are many difficulties with the interpretation of these artifacts as galvanic cells: Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Experimental archaeology employs a number of different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches in order to generate and test hypotheses or an interpretation, based upon archaeological source material, like ancient structures or artifacts. ...

• the asphalt completely covers the copper cylinder, electrically insulating it, so no current can be drawn without modifying the design;
• there are not any wires or conductors with them;
• no widely accepted electrical equipment is associated with them. (Controversial stone reliefs depicting arc lights have been suggested, however the voltages obtained are orders of magnitude below what would be needed to produce arc lighting);
• an asphalt seal, being thermoplastic, is excellent for forming a hermetic seal for long term storage. It would be extremely inconvenient however for a galvanic cell, which would require frequent topping up of the electrolyte (if they were intended for extended use).

Some observe that the artifacts strongly resemble another type of object with a known purpose – namely, storage vessels for sacred scrolls from nearby Seleucia on the Tigris. Those vessels do not have the outermost clay jar, but are otherwise almost identical. Since it is claimed these vessels were exposed to the elements, it would not be at all surprising if any papyrus or parchment inside had completely rotted away, perhaps leaving a trace of slightly acidic organic residue. Unsolved problems in Egyptology: Did Egyptians have some form of understanding of electricity? Did the Egyptians use batteries? What is the relief at Dendera? The Dendera light is a stone relief located in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex in Egypt. ... A Techno-Thriller, Arc Light is set towards the end of the 1990s and depicts a warp between the United States of America and the Soviet Union. ... A thermoplastic is a material that is plastic or deformable, melts to a liquid when heated and freezes to a brittle, glassy state when cooled sufficiently. ... Scroll can have different meanings: A scroll is a roll of parchment, papyrus, or paper which has been drawn or written upon. ... The name Seleucia may denote any one of several cities in the Seleucid Empire. ... Papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus at Kew Gardens, London Papyrus is an early form of paper produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt. ... German parchmenter, 1568 Parchment is a material for the pages of a book or codex, made from fine calf skin, sheep skin or goat skin. ...

Controversy and comparisons

Some have claimed that these artifacts provide evidence of ancient knowledge of electricity, millennia before the conventional dates given for its discovery. However even if it is accepted that the "Baghdad batteries" were in fact electrical devices, this provides no evidence of any real knowledge of electrical phenomena. Any basic understanding of electrical theory of these cultures did not allow them to render more robust designs. The facts that using the electrodes in the electrolyte to produce the voltage, and using larger vessels gives a larger current is obvious to us today; but it is unclear if the ancient civilizations realized this. Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ...

Whoever made the Baghdad batteries, assuming they were in fact galvanic cells, may not have fully understood the principles. For example, it is well known that the Ancient Greeks were aware of electrostatic electrical phenomena produced by amber, but they regarded it as a mere curiosity or toy and developed no electrical theory or functional devices. For evidence of ancient Parthian knowledge of the ideas of electricity, records of its use await discovery in more concrete terms, such as seeing it discussed in their writings (though they may not have stated it as 'electricity', relating instead a mystical connotation) or gaining a better perception that their "batteries" were designed with a knowledge of electrical theory. A controversy also exists as to whether the Ancient Egyptians could have used such devices (with a device such as the Dendera Light). The Temple of Athena, the Parthenon Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around nine hundred years. ... Electrostatics is the branch of physics that deals with the force exerted by a static (i. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Mysticism (ancient Greek mysticon = secret) is meditation, prayer, or theology focused on the direct experience of union with divinity, God, or Ultimate Reality, or the belief that such experience is a genuine and important source of knowledge. ... Ancient Egypt was a long-standing civilization in northeastern Africa. ... Unsolved problems in Egyptology: Did Egyptians have some form of understanding of electricity? Did the Egyptians use batteries? What is the relief at Dendera? The Dendera light is a stone relief located in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex in Egypt. ...

As electrical generators, the "Baghdad batteries" would be inefficient when compared to modern devices. However, if placed in appropriate network arrays, these artifacts could produce a qualitative power output. Luigi Galvani formulated a similar electrochemical couple experiment in the 1780s and, 20 years later, Alessandro Volta developed enough theory to convert Galvani's simple experiment into the efficient voltaic pile, producing around 30 volts of continuous current (but Volta's devices were much larger than known Baghdad relics). Within two or three more years Sir Humphry Davy was using voltaic piles that produced 1,000 volts and enough current to run an arc lamp. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Luigi Galvani - Italian physician famous for making frogs legs twitch. ... Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (February 18, 1745 - March 5, 1827) was an Italian physicist known especially for the development of the electric battery in 1800. ... A copper-zinc Voltaic pile A Voltaic pile on display in the Tempio Voltiano The Voltaic pile is the first modern electric battery, invented by Alessandro Volta in 1800. ... VDC is a three-letter abbreviation with multiple meanings, the most common is volts (V) of continous current (direct current (DC)), in contrast to VAC. Care must be taken not to connect DC devices (such as DC electrical motors) to alternating current (AC) sources, as DC devices can be seriously... Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet, FRS (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829) was a British chemist and physicist. ... 15 kW Xenon short-arc lamp. ...

MythBusters

On MythBusters' 29th episode (which aired on March 23, 2005), the Baghdad battery myth was put to the test. Ten hand-made terracotta jars were fitted to act as batteries. Lemon juice was chosen as the electrolyte to activate the electrochemical reaction between the copper and iron. (Oddly enough, it was discovered that a single lemon produced more voltage than one of the batteries). When all of the batteries were linked together in series, they produced upwards of 4 volts. Then, the major question was, “What were these ancient batteries used for?” MythBusters is an American popular science television program on the Discovery Channel starring special effects experts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman, who use basic elements of the scientific method to test the validity of various rumors and urban legends in popular culture. ... Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: MythBusters The cast/crew of the television series MythBusters performs experiments to verify or debunk urban legends, old wives tales, and the like. ... Binomial name Citrus X limon {{{author}}} Lemons are the citrus fruit from the tree Citrus X limon. ... An electrolyte is a substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium. ... International safety symbol Caution, risk of electric shock (ISO 3864), colloquially known as high voltage symbol. ...

The show’s research staff discovered three possible reasons: electroplating, medical pain relief (through acupuncture), and religious experience. It was discovered that the “linked” batteries indeed had sufficient power to electroplate a small token. For acupuncture, the batteries produced a “random” pulse that could be felt through the needles; however, it began to produce a painful burning sensation when the batteries were grounded to two needles at once. For the religious experience aspect of the batteries, a replica of the Ark of the Covenant was constructed, complete with two cherubim. Instead of linking the cherubim's golden wings to the low power batteries, an electric fence generator was connected. When touched, the wings produced a strong feeling of tightness in the chest. Although the batteries themselves had not been used, it was surmised that, due to the apparent lack of knowledge of electricity, any form of electrical sensation from them could equate to the “divine presence” in the eyes of ancient people. In the end, the Baghdad battery myth was found "plausible" on all three accounts. Electroplating is the process of using Davd lloyd current to coat an electrically conductive object with a relatively thin layer of metal. ... Acupuncture chart from Hua Shou (fl. ... In religious experience, or sacred experience, the believer comes in contact with transcendental reality. ... The Ark of the Covenant (ארון הברית in Hebrew: aron habrit) is described in the Hebrew Bible as a sacred container, wherein rested the stone tablets containing the Ten Commandments as well as other sacred Israelite objects. ... A cherub (Hebrew כרוב; plural cherubim, כרובים) is an angelic creature mentioned several times in the Tanakh, or Old Testament, and in the Book of Revelation. ... An electric fence is a barrier that uses painful or even lethal high-voltage electric shocks to deter animals or people from crossing a boundary. ...

See also

• Dendera light
• Leyden jar
• Ark of the Covenant
• Electricity
• Galvanization
• Historical revisionism
• History of the battery

Unsolved problems in Egyptology: Did Egyptians have some form of understanding of electricity? Did the Egyptians use batteries? What is the relief at Dendera? The Dendera light is a stone relief located in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex in Egypt. ... Original capacitor The Leyden jar was the original capacitor, invented in 1745 by Pieter van Muschenbroek (1700–1748) and used to conduct many early experiments in electricity. ... The Ark of the Covenant (ארון הברית in Hebrew: aron habrit) is described in the Hebrew Bible as a sacred container, wherein rested the stone tablets containing the Ten Commandments as well as other sacred Israelite objects. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... Galvanization or galvanisation refers to any of several electrochemical processes named after the Italian scientist Luigi Galvani. ... In Parson Weems Fable (1939) Grant Wood takes a sly poke at a traditional hagiographical account of George Washington Historical revisionism has both a legitimate academic use and a pejorative meaning. ... Voltas own illustrations of his Crown of Cups and Voltaic Pile, the first batteries. ...

References

• Dubpernell, G., "Evidence of the use of primitive batteries in antiquity". Selected Topics in the History of Electrochemistry, The Electrochemical Society, I-22 Princetn, NJ. 1978.
• Eggert, G., "The Enigma of the 'Battery of Baghdad". Proceedings 7th European Skeptics Conference. 1995.
• Eggert, G., "The enigmatic 'battery of Baghdad". Skeptical Inquirer, May-June 1996 V20 N3 PG31(4).
• MacKechnie, J. C. "An Early Electric cell?" Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, 6:356-57. 1960.
• Paszthory E., "Electricity generation or Magic? The analysis of an unusual group of finds from Mesopotamia". MASCA Research Papers in Science and Technology 6:31-8. 1989.
• Zymet, Matthew, "Electric Artifact". The Learning Channel.

TLC Network is a cable TV network in the US that carries a variety of informational and reality-based programming. ...

External articles, references, resources

• Jason Martell Discovery Video
• Battery, Baghdad, 250 BC : Museum of Ancient Inventions
• Baghdad Battery : Unmuseum.org
• Ancient Artifacts - Baghdad Battery : Skeptic World
• Baghdad Battery : Strange Artifacts - World Mysteries
• Electricity in ancient times. WUFOC and NÄRKONTAKT.