The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices.

The Canadian Dynasty EV 4 door sedan neighborhood electric vehicle

The Indian REVA 2 door seen here in Malta. More REVAs have been produced than any other currently selling electric car.While in the UK it's a full blown EV, in the US it is allowed only as neighborhood electric vehicle with reduced top speed

Citroën Berlingo Electrique vans of the ELCIDIS goods distribution service in La Rochelle, France

Electric Micro-vans produced by Micro-Vett as a conversion of a Piaggio (rebranded Isuzu) vehicle by installing electric components, Seen in Rome Italy.

The electric car, EV, or simply electric vehicle is a battery electric vehicle (BEV) that utilizes chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. Electric vehicles use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles, and are not considered pure BEVs because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. BEVs are usually automobiles, light trucks, neighborhood electric vehicles, motorcycles, motorized bicycles, electric scooters, golf carts, milk floats, forklifts and similar vehicles. For battery powered passenger automobiles, see battery electric vehicle. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Rav4evdrawing. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Rav4evdrawing. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Image File history File links DynastyEVSedan. ... Image File history File links DynastyEVSedan. ... An electric vehicle currently in production built by Dynasty Electric Car Corp. ... A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV) is an American term for a speed limited battery electric vehicle (usually 25 miles per hour in the U.S.A.) restricted by law to operation on roads with speed limits not exceeding 35 MPH. Often such vehicles are not built from scratch but instead... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... G-Wiz electric car in London REVA electric car in Malta REVA is an Indian battery electric vehicle intended for use as a City car. ... A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV) is an American term for a speed limited battery electric vehicle (usually 25 miles per hour in the U.S.A.) restricted by law to operation on roads with speed limits not exceeding 35 MPH. Often such vehicles are not built from scratch but instead... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1800x1200, 432 KB) Summary Electric vans of the ELCIDIS goods distribution service in La Rochelle, France (Photo: LHOON) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1800x1200, 432 KB) Summary Electric vans of the ELCIDIS goods distribution service in La Rochelle, France (Photo: LHOON) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The Citroën Berlingo is a mini MPV produced by the French manufacturer Citroën since 1996. ... La Rochelle is a city and commune of western France, and a seaport on the Atlantic Ocean (population 78,000 in 2004). ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 504 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1000 × 1190 pixel, file size: 59 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) eigenes Bild www. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 504 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (1000 × 1190 pixel, file size: 59 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) eigenes Bild www. ... An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicle to battery electric propulsion, creating a battery electric vehicle. ... Piaggio is a company based in Italy that produces cars, motorcycles, scooters and aeroplanes. ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... A rechargeable lithium polymer Nokia mobile phone battery. ... A battery pack is a set of any number of (preferably) identical batteries or individual battery cells. ... For other kinds of motors, see motor. ... A motor controller is a device or group of devices that serves to govern in some predetermined manner the performance of an electric motor. ... The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... Charge-sustaining is the mode of operation utilized to manage Battery packs in conventional hybrid vehicles. ... Petrol redirects here. ... Hybrids Plus plug-in hybrid Toyota Prius conversion with PHEV-30 (30 mile or 48 km all-electric range) battery packs A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an electric power source. ... Charge-depleting refers to vehicle operation that is dependent on energy from the Battery pack, Battery electric vehicles operate solely in this mode. ... “Car” and “Cars” redirect here. ... For other uses, see Truck (disambiguation). ... A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV) is an American term for a speed limited battery electric vehicle (usually 25 miles per hour in the U.S.A.) restricted by law to operation on roads with speed limits not exceeding 35 MPH. Often such vehicles are not built from scratch but instead... A motorcycle (or motorbike) is a two-wheeled vehicle powered by an engine. ... A motorized bicycle is a bicycle with an attached motor used to assist with pedalling. ... Electric scooter can mean: Mobility scooter Electric kick scooter Electric motor scooter This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... A Lamborghini built golf cart A golf cart (officially referred to as a golf car according to ANSI standard z130. ... A milk float in Liverpool city centre, June 2005 A milk float is a small battery electric vehicle (BEV), specifically designed for the delivery of fresh milk. ... Pallet truck redirects here. ...

BEVs were among the earliest automobiles. BEVs produce no exhaust fumes, and minimal pollution if charged from most forms of renewable energy. Many are capable of acceleration exceeding that of conventional vehicles, are quiet, and do not produce noxious fumes. BEVs may reduce dependence on petroleum, enhance national security, and mitigate global warming, depending on how their electricity is produced. “Car” and “Cars” redirect here. ... Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity and/or direction, and at any point on a velocity-time graph, it is given by the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point. ... Security measures taken to protect the Houses of Parliament in London, England. ... Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ...

Historically, BEVs and PHEVs have had issues with high battery costs, limited travel distance between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which have limited widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have addressed many of these problems^{[citation needed]}; many models have recently been prototyped, and a handful of future production models have been announced. Toyota, Honda, Ford and General Motors all produced BEVs in the 90s in order to comply with the California Air Resources Board's Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate. The major US automobile manufacturers have been accused of deliberately sabotaging their electric vehicle production efforts.^[1][2] California Air Resources Board (CARB) is the clean air agency of the state of California in the United States. ... For other uses, see Sabotage (disambiguation). ...

The price of an EV is set by market factors not cost^{[citation needed]}. For equivalent production volumes, battery EVs may be cheaper to make and maintain than internal combustion engine vehicles because they have many fewer parts^{[citation needed]}. They are less expensive to operate by a factor of ten over gasoline^{[citation needed]}. Using regenerative braking, a feature which is standard on many electric and hybrid vehicles, a significant portion of energy may be recovered.

In general terms a battery electric vehicle is a rechargeable electric vehicle. Other examples of rechargeable electric vehicles are ones that store electricity in ultracapacitors, or in a flywheel. An Ultracapacitor is a capacitor that has an unusually large amount of energy storage capability relative to its size when compared to common capacitors. ... Spoked flywheel Flywheel from stationary engine. ...

Relation with hybrid vehicles

Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles, and are not considered pure BEVs (also called all-electric vehicle) because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. If batteries cannot be charged externally are called regular hybrids. For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... Charge-sustaining is the mode of operation utilized to manage Battery packs in conventional hybrid vehicles. ... Petrol redirects here. ... Hybrids Plus plug-in hybrid Toyota Prius conversion with PHEV-30 (30 mile or 48 km all-electric range) battery packs A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an electric power source. ... Charge-depleting refers to vehicle operation that is dependent on energy from the Battery pack, Battery electric vehicles operate solely in this mode. ...

History

Main article: History of the electric vehicle

1912 Detroit Electric advertisement

Thomas Edison and an electric car in 1913 (courtesy of the National Museum of American History)

Camille Jenatzy in electric car La Jamais Contente, 1899

BEVs were among some of the earliest automobiles — electric vehicles predate gasoline and diesel. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Scottish businessman Robert Anderson invented the first crude electric carriage. Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands, designed the small-scale electric car, built by his assistant Christopher Becker in 1835. Electric vehicles were invented in the mid-1800s and held the vehicular land speed record until around 1900. ... Download high resolution version (808x582, 86 KB)1912 Detroit Electric car ad This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (808x582, 86 KB)1912 Detroit Electric car ad This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... 1915 Detroit Electric Brougham Detroit Electric (1907 - 1939) was an automobile brand produced by the Anderson Electric Car Company in Detroit Michigan. ... Image File history File links Ed_d22m. ... Image File history File links Ed_d22m. ... “Edison” redirects here. ... The National Museum of American History is a museum administered by the Smithsonian Institution and located in Washington, D.C., on the National Mall. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Camille Jenatzy (1868 - 1913) was a Belgian race car driver. ... Picture of La Jamais Contente vehicle. ... The verb predate has two meanings:- To prey upon: see predator and predation and prey. ... This article is about the country. ...

The improvement of the storage battery, by Frenchmen Gaston Plante in 1865 and Camille Faure in 1881, paved the way for electric vehicles to flourish. France and Great Britain were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.^[3] In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.^[4] Gaston Planté (1834-1889) was a French physicist who invented a rechargeable electric battery in 1859. ... Gustave Trouvé (1839-1902) was a French electrical engineer of the 19th Century. ...

Just prior to 1900, before the pre-eminence of powerful but polluting internal combustion engines, electric automobiles held many speed and distance records. Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km/h (60 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on April 29, 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph). An internal combustion engine is an engine that is powered by the expansion of hot combustion products of fuel directly acting within an engine. ... Camille Jenatzy (1868 - 1913) was a Belgian race car driver. ... is the 119th day of the year (120th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Picture of Jamais Contente vehicle. ...

BEVs, produced in the USA by Anthony Electric, Baker, Detroit, Edison, Studebaker, and others during the early 20th Century for a time out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. Due to technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology, the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about 32 km/h (20 mph). These vehicles were successfully sold as town cars to upper-class customers and were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their clean, quiet and easy operation. Electrics did not require hand-cranking to start. Baker Motor Vehicle Company was a manufacturer of Brass Era electric automobiles in Cleveland, Ohio. ... 1915 Detroit Electric Brougham Detroit Electric (1907 - 1939) was an automobile brand produced by the Anderson Electric Car Company in Detroit Michigan. ... Edison is the last name of a famous United States inventor: Thomas Edison Other people known by the name Edison: Charles Edison – son of Thomas Edison and Governor of New Jersey Edison Chen – popular Hong Kong teen idol Edison Carter, character in the television show Max Headroom A number of... Studebaker Corporation, or simply Studebaker, was a United States wagon and automobile manufacturer based in South Bend, Indiana. ... Assorted discrete transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch. ... ...

The introduction of the electric starter by Cadillac in 1913 simplified the task of starting the internal combustion engine, formerly difficult and sometimes dangerous. This innovation contributed to the downfall of the electric vehicle, as did the mass-produced and relatively inexpensive Ford Model T, which had been produced for four years, since 1908.^[5] Internal-combustion vehicles advanced technologically, ultimately becoming more practical than — and out-performing — their electric-powered competitors. In 1903, the first U.S. patent for an automobile electric self-starter was issued to Clyde J. Coleman of New York City (No. ... Cadillac is a brand of luxury automobile, part of the General Motors corporation, produced and mostly sold in the USA; outside of North America, they have been less successful. ... The Ford Model T (colloquially known as the Tin Lizzie and the Flivver) was an automobile produced by Henry Fords Ford Motor Company from 1908 through 1927. ...

Another blow to BEVs in the USA was the loss of Edison's direct current (DC) electric power transmission system in the War of Currents. This deprived BEV users of a convenient source of DC electricity to recharge their batteries. As the technology of rectifiers was still in its infancy, changing alternating current to DC required a costly rotary converter. “Edison” redirects here. ... Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electricity through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... // In the War of Currents era (sometimes, War of the Currents or Battle of Currents) in the late 1880s, George Westinghouse and Thomas Edison became adversaries due to Edisons promotion of direct current (DC) for electric power distribution over the alternating current (AC) advocated by Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla. ... AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals A rectifier is an electrical device, comprising one or more semiconductive devices (such as diodes) or vacuum tubes arranged for converting alternating current to direct current. ... City lights viewed in a motion blurred exposure. ... Rotary Converter refers to a class of electrical machinery that was used to convert one form of electrical power into another form. ...

Battery electric vehicles became popular for some limited range applications. Forklifts were BEVs when they were introduced in 1923 by Yale[2] and some battery electric fork lifts are still produced. BEV golf carts have been available for many years, including early models by Lektra in 1954.[3] Their popularity led to their use as neighborhood electric vehicles and expanded versions became available which were partially "street legal". A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV) is an American term for a speed limited battery electric vehicle (usually 25 miles per hour in the U.S.A.) restricted by law to operation on roads with speed limits not exceeding 35 MPH. Often such vehicles are not built from scratch but instead...

By the late 1930s, the electric automobile industry had completely disappeared, with battery-electric traction being limited to niche applications, such as certain industrial vehicles.

The 1947 invention of the point-contact transistor marked the beginning of a new era for BEV technology. Within a decade, Henney Coachworks had joined forces with National Union Electric Company, the makers of Exide batteries, to produce the first modern electric car based on transistor technology, the Henney Kilowatt, produced in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations. The 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the improved practicality of the Henney Kilowatt over previous electric cars, it was too expensive, and production was terminated in 1961. Even though the Henney Kilowatt never reached mass production volume, their transistor-based electric technology paved the way for modern EVs. Assorted discrete transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ...

After California indicated that it would kill its ZEV Mandate, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EV for sale to the general public during six months (ending on November 22, 2002). All the rest were only leased, and with minor exceptions those models were withdrawn from the market and destroyed by manufacturers (other than Toyota). Toyota not only supports the 328 Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public, still all running at this date, but also supports hundreds in fleet usage. From time to time, Toyota RAV4-EV come up for sale on the used market, at prices that have ranged up to the mid 60 thousands of dollars. These are highly prized by solar homeowners who wish to charge their cars from their solar electric rooftop systems. General Motors EV1 A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV will produce no emissions or pollution from the vehicle when stationary or operating. ...

As of July, 2006, there are between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed, battery powered vehicles in use in the US, up from about 56,000 in 2004 according to Electric Drive Transportation Association estimates.^[6]

Regulation in California

Since the late 1980s, electric vehicles have been promoted in the US through the use of tax credits. BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero emission vehicle (ZEV) passenger automobiles, because they produce no emissions while being driven. The CARB had set a minimum quota for the use of ZEVs, but it was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that it was economically infeasible due to an alleged "lack of consumer demand". California Air Resources Board (CARB) is the clean air agency of the state of California in the United States. ... A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV will, theoretically, produce no pollution from the vehicle when stationary or operating. ... “Car” and “Cars” redirect here. ...

The California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not specifically to promote electric vehicles. Under pressure from various manufactures, CARB replaced the zero emissions requirement with a combined requirement of a very small number of ZEVs to promote research and development, and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), an administrative designation for a super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emit about ten percent of the pollution of ordinary low emissions vehicles and are also certified for zero evaporative emissions. While effective in reaching the air polution goals projected for the zero emissions requirement the market effect was to permit the major manufactures to quickly terminate their public BEV programs. California Air Resources Board (CARB) is the clean air agency of the state of California in the United States. ... A Partial Zero Emissions Vehicle (PZEV) is an administrative category within the U.S. state of California for low emission vehicles. ... Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV) is a conventionally powered or gas-electric hybrid vehicle designed to produce minimal air pollution, typically less than 10% of that of an equivalent ordinary vehicle. ...

Selected production vehicles

For more details on this topic, see Category:Production electric vehicles.

and List of production battery electric vehicles

Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):^[7] // For more details on this topic, see Category:Production electric vehicles. ...

Baker Motor Vehicle Company was a manufacturer of Brass Era electric automobiles in Cleveland, Ohio. ... The euro (€; ISO 4217 code EUR) is the currency of twelve European Union member states: Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. ... 1915 Detroit Electric Brougham Detroit Electric (1907 - 1939) was an automobile brand produced by the Anderson Electric Car Company in Detroit Michigan. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ... Assorted discrete transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch. ... EV1 redirects here. ... In economics, a subsidy is generally a monetary grant given by a government to lower the price faced by producers or consumers of a good, generally because it is considered to be in the public interest. ... The Honda EV Plus was the first production electric car from a major automaker with non lead acid batteries. ... A valve-regulated, sometimes called sealed, lead acid battery Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. ... A nickel metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery but has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium. ... This article or section should include material from Tenancy agreement A lease is a contract conveying from one person (the lessor) to another person (the lessee) the right to use and control some article of property for a specified period of time (the term), without conveying ownership, in exchange for... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Ford Ranger EV (Electric Vehicle) is a battery electric vehicle produced by Ford Motor Company. ... Estate car body style (Saab 95) A station wagon (United States usage), wagon (Australian usage, though station wagon is widely used) or estate car (United Kingdom usage) is a car body style similar to a sedan car but with an extended rear cargo area. ... Li-Ion Camera Battery Lithium ion batteries (or Li-ion) have become very common and dropped in price recently. ... This article or section should include material from Tenancy agreement A lease is a contract conveying from one person (the lessor) to another person (the lessee) the right to use and control some article of property for a specified period of time (the term), without conveying ownership, in exchange for... Think Nordic is a battery electric vehicle company located in Aurskog, Norway, manufacturing cars under the Think brand. ... The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd and pronounced nye-cad) is a popular type of rechargeable battery for portable electronics and toys using the metals nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd) as the active chemicals. ... [Under Development] The Citroën Berlingo Electrique is a battery-powered version of the Berlingo range of vans. ... PSA is a three letter acronym which may stand for: Pacific Sociological Association Pacific Southwest Airlines, a former U.S. airline that used to fly passenger services inside California and to other nearby Western areas during the 1970s and early 1980s; its trademark was a smile drawn under their planes... Citroën is a French automobile manufacturer, founded in 1919 by André Citroën. ... Peugeot is a major French car brand, part of PSA Peugeot Citroën. ... G-Wiz electric car in London REVA electric car in Malta REVA is an Indian battery electric vehicle intended for use as a City car. ... The Fiat Panda, a 1980s city car A current model Toyota Aygo city car A city car (or urban car) is a small, moderately powered automobile intended for use in urban areas. ... ZAP Xebra is an electric vehicle that was launched in May 2006 in the US market. ... A notchback full-size luxury sedan. ...

Use

In the United States

The following chart and table are based on Department of Energy tables on Alternative Fueled Vehicles, 1992-2000. Figures for electric vehicles include Low-Speed Vehicles (LSVs), which are "four-wheeled motor vehicles whose top speed is between 20 and 25 miles per hour [32 to 40 kilometers per hour]...to be used in residential areas, planned communities, industrial sites, and other areas with low density traffic, and low-speed zones."^[8] LSVs, more commonly known as neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), were defined in 1998 by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 500, which required safety features such as windshields and seat belts, but not doors or side walls.^[9][10] The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA, often pronounced nit-suh) is an agency of the Executive Branch of the U.S. Government, part of the Department of Transportation. ...

Number of battery electric vehicles in use each year (red), and year-to-year percentage increase (blue), per table at left

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Comparison to internal combustion vehicles

Tzero an older model electric vehicle on a drag race with a Dodge Viper left behind

BEVs have become much less common than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). Therefore, it is often helpful to consider many aspects of BEVs in comparison to ICEVs. Image File history File links Tzeroviper. ... Image File history File links Tzeroviper. ... T subscript Zero (t0) is a symbol used in mathematics referring to the starting point or the beginning of time within a system. ... The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ... The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ...

Cost

While gasoline powered cars may reach 75 or 100 mpg (3L/100 km), electric cars may reach the equivalent of 200 mpg (1.5 L/100km) with their typical cost of two to four cents per mile. In contrast, gasoline-powered ICEVs currently cost about four to six times as much.^[11] The total cost of ownership for modern BEVs depends primarily on the cost of the batteries,^[12] the type and capacity of which determine several factors such as travel range, top speed, battery lifetime and recharging time; several trade-offs exist.

Batteries are usually the most expensive component of BEVs, though the price per kWh of charge has fallen rapidly in recent years,^{[citation needed]} and batteries from old or wrecked electric cars can be bought for battery-to-grid mini-power plants. The cost of battery manufacture is substantial, but increasing returns to scale may serve to lower their cost when BEVs are manufactured on the scale of modern internal combustion vehicles. Since the late 1990s, advances in battery technologies have been driven by skyrocketing demand for laptop computers and mobile phones, with consumer demand for more features, larger, brighter displays, and longer battery time driving research and development in the field. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances. The kilowatt-hour (symbol: kW·h) is a unit for measuring energy. ... Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology is a bi-directional grid interface for gridable Electric vehicles such as Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV). ... In economics, returns to scale and economies of scale are related terms that describe what happens as the scale of production increases. ... For the band, see Laptop (band). ...

Some batteries can be leased or rented instead of bought (see Think Nordic). This article is about a property agreement in private law. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with rental agreement. ... Think Nordic is a battery electric vehicle company located in Aurskog, Norway, manufacturing cars under the Think brand. ...

One article indicates that 10 kWh of battery power provides a range of about 20 miles in a Toyota Prius, but this is not a primary source, and does not fit with estimates elsewhere of about 5 miles per KWH.^[13] The Chevy Volt is expected to use 50 MPG when running on the auxiliary power unit (a small onboard generator) - at 33% thermodynamic efficiency that would mean 12 KWHs for 50 miles, or about 240 watt hours per mile. For prices of a kWh of charge with various different battery technologies, see the "Energy/Consumer Price" column in the "Comparison of battery types" section in the rechargeable battery article. The kilowatt-hour (symbol: kW·h) is a unit for measuring energy. ... A rechargeable lithium polymer Nokia mobile phone battery. ...

Ownership costs

Initial costs for a Battery Electric vehicle can be higher, but overall cost of ownership is lower, simply because electricity costs less to create than gasoline. While the initial cost can be over 30,000US, the cost of electricity to charge the battery costs a fraction of a cent per mile, whereas most gasoline cars cost over 10 cents per mile. Thus, inital cost is higher, but overall cost is lower.

In the UK other changes in ownership costs include vehicle excise duty or road tax. Electric vehicles are now exempt and so BEV owners will save around £100 per year compared with an average conventional car. There remains some uncertainty about annual depreciation rates and resale values for BEVs due to the unknown length of battery-life and the low demand for battery electrics compared to other green car types. As BEVs lose their value faster than conventional cars depreciation rates are likely to be higher than for a conventional car at this time.

In the UK, BEV users who install additional recharging equipment will face additional financial penalties. Costs per standard charge point are around £500-£2000, depending on the difficulty of installation. Fully installed fast-chargers will cost between £10,000 and £30,000 per point although this depends on whether an on-board or off-board fast-charging system is used.

Running costs

Some running costs are significantly less for BEVs than for conventional cars. In particular, fuel costs are very low due to the competitive price of electricity - fuel duty is zero-rated - and to the high efficiency of the vehicles themselves. Taking into account the high fuel economy of battery electric cars, the fuel costs can be as low as 1.0-2.5p per mile (depending on the tariff). For a typical annual mileage of around 10,000 miles per year, switching from a conventional car to a battery electric could save you around £800 in fuel costs. However if the battery hire is considered a running cost, then the saving on fuel is cancelled out by the monthly battery leasing cost. In the New York City metropolitan area, the cost to run a battery (non-hybrid) electric car using standard deep cycle lead acid marine type batteries and is charged from the mains, costs about 3 times more to run than a conventional gasoline car.

BEV operating costs can be directly compared to the equivalent operating costs of a gasoline-powered vehicle. A gallon of gasoline contains about 36.4 kWh of energy. To calculate the cost of the electrical equivalent of a gallon of gasoline, multiply the utility cost per kWh by 36.4. To calculate the equivalent mileage of a BEV, divide 36.4 kWh/gal by the energy efficiency in kWh/mile, to get the equivalent miles per gallon. For example, if a BEV owner's electricity rate is $0.10 per kWh, and the BEV gets 0.20 kWh/mile, then the owner is paying the equivalent of $3.64 per gallon of gasoline, and getting the equivalent of 182 miles per gallon.

Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions

Production and conversion BEVs typically use 0.17 to 0.37 kilowatt-hours per mile (0.1–0.23 kWh/km).^[14][15] Nearly half of this power consumption is due to inefficiencies in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the well to wheels power consumption of their li-ion powered vehicle is 0.215 kwh per mile. The US fleet average of 23 miles per gallon of gasoline is equivalent to 1.58 kWh per mile and the 70 MPG Honda Insight uses 0.52 kWh per mile (assuming 36.4 kWh per US gallon of gasoline), so hybrid electric vehicles are relatively energy efficient, and battery electric vehicles are much more energy efficient. A 2001 DOE estimate calculates a battery powered EV at 7 cents/kWh can be driven 43 miles for a dollar and at $1.25/gallon a gasoline vehicle will go 18 miles. An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicle to battery electric propulsion, creating a battery electric vehicle. ... In physics and engineering, including mechanical and electrical engineering, energy efficiency is a dimensionless number, with a value between 0 and 1 or, when multiplied by 100, is given as a percentage. ... Petrol redirects here. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... In physics and engineering, including mechanical and electrical engineering, energy efficiency is a dimensionless number, with a value between 0 and 1 or, when multiplied by 100, is given as a percentage. ...

Sources of electricity in the U.S. 2005[1]

Generating electricity and providing liquid fuels for vehicles are different categories of the energy economy, with different inefficiencies and environmental harms. A 55 % to 99.9 % improvement in CO₂ emissions takes place when driving an EV over an ICE (gasoline, diesel) vehicle depending on the source of electricity.^[16] Comparing CO₂ emissions can be done by using the US national average of 1.28 lbs CO₂/kWh ^{[citation needed]} for electricity generation, giving a range for BEVs from zero up to 0.2 to 0.5 lbs CO₂/mi (0.06 kg/km to 0.13 kg/km). Because 1 gal of gasoline produces 19 lbs CO₂ when burned in a typical automobile engine, the average US fleet produces 0.83 lbs/mi (0.23 kg/km), a 40 mpg car produces approximately 0.47 lbs/mi and the Insight 0.27 lbs/mi (0.08 kg/km).^[17] CO₂ and other greenhouse gases emissions are minimal for BEVs powered from sustainable electricity sources (e.g. solar energy), but are constant per gallon (or litre) for gasoline vehicles. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 414 pixel Image in higher resolution (1082 × 560 pixel, file size: 39 KB, MIME type: image/png) Made by Acdx in Excel 2007 based on [1] and Image:Sources_of_Electricity_in_the_US_2005. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 414 pixel Image in higher resolution (1082 × 560 pixel, file size: 39 KB, MIME type: image/png) Made by Acdx in Excel 2007 based on [1] and Image:Sources_of_Electricity_in_the_US_2005. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... This article is about water ice. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ...

Aerodynamic drag has a large impact on energy efficiency as the speed of the vehicle increases. See drag coefficients for a list of cars. The short ton is a unit of mass equal to 907. ... Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the earth’s crust. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... An example of a wind turbine. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... An object falling through a gas or liquid experiences a force in direction opposite to its motion. ... The drag coefficient (Cd, Cx or Cw, depending on the country) is a dimensionless quantity that describes a characteristic amount of aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the drag equation. ...

Maintenance

EVs, particularly those using AC or brushless DC motors, have far fewer mechanical parts to wear out. An ICE vehicle on the other hand will have pistons, valves, camshafts, cambelts, gearbox and a clutch, all of which can wear out. A brushless DC motor is an electric motor that operates like a DC motor, but with the roles of the rotor and stator reversed. ...

Both hybrids and EVs can use regenerative braking, which greatly reduces wear and tear on friction brakes - Prius taxi drivers report far less frequent brake maintenance.

Acceleration performance

Although some electric vehicles have very small motors, 20 hp or less and therefore have modest acceleration, the relatively constant torque of an electric motor even at very low speeds tends to increase the acceleration performance of an electric vehicle for the same rated motor power. Another early solution was American Motors’ experimental Amitron piggyback system of batteries with one type designed for sustained speeds while a different set boosted acceleration when needed. Image File history File links VenturiFetish. ... This article is about a unit of measurement. ... American Motors Corporation (AMC) was an American automobile company formed on January 14, 1954 by the merger of the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation and the Hudson Motor Car Company. ... The Amitron was an American experimental car built in 1967 by American Motors and Gulton Industries. ...

Electric vehicles can also utilize a direct motor-to-wheel configuration which increases the amount of available power. Having multiple motors connected directly to the wheels allows for each of the wheels to be used for both propulsion and as braking systems, thereby increasing traction. In some cases, the motor can be housed directly in the wheel, such as in the Whispering Wheel design, which lowers the vehicle's center of gravity and reduces the number of moving parts. When not fitted with an axle, differential, or transmission, electric vehicles have less drivetrain rotational inertia. In physics, power (symbol: P) is the rate at which work is performed or energy is transferred. ... Look up traction, gription in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Whispering wheel is a self-propelled electrically powered wheel designed for propulsion in hybrid or alternative energy vehicles or busses. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. ... In an automobile and other four-wheeled vehicles, a differential is a device, usually consisting of gears, for allowing each of the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds, while supplying equal torque to each of them. ... “Gearbox” redirects here. ...

A gearless or single gear design in some BEVs eliminates the need for gear shifting, giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. Because the torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. As there is no delay in developing torque in an EV, EV drivers report generally high satisfaction with acceleration.

For example, the Venturi Fetish delivers supercar acceleration despite a relatively modest 300 horsepower, and a top speed of around 100 miles per hour. Some DC motor-equipped drag racer BEVs, have simple two-speed transmissions to improve top speed.^[18][19] The Tesla Roadster prototype can reach 60 mph in 4 seconds with a motor rated at 248 hp. The Venturi Fétish is the worlds first production two-seater electric sports car. ... For other uses, see Supercar (disambiguation). ... This article is about a unit of measurement. ... For other kinds of motors, see motor. ... The Tesla Roadster is the first fully electric automobile to be produced by electric car firm Tesla Motors. ...

Batteries

Prototypes of 75 watt-hour/kilogram lithium ion polymer battery. Newer Li-ion cells can provide up to 130 Wh/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.

Main article: Rechargeable batteries

Rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead-acid ("flooded" and VRLA), NiCd, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less commonly, zinc-air and molten salt batteries. The amount of electricity stored in batteries is measured in kWh. Image File history File links NASA_Lithium_Ion_Polymer_Battery. ... Image File history File links NASA_Lithium_Ion_Polymer_Battery. ... Lithium ion polymer batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. ... Rechargeable batteries are batteries that can be restored to full charge by the application of electrical energy. ... A rechargeable lithium polymer Nokia mobile phone battery. ... A valve-regulated, sometimes called sealed, lead acid battery Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. ... VRLA stands for valve regulated lead acid and is the designation for maintenance-free lead-acid batteries. ... The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd and pronounced nye-cad) is a popular type of rechargeable battery for portable electronics and toys using the metals nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd) as the active chemicals. ... A nickel metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery but has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium. ... Lithium ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-Ion or Li-On) are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in consumer electronics. ... Lithium ion polymer batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. ... Zinc-air batteries, also called “zinc-air fuel cells,“ are non-rechargeable electro-chemical batteries powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. ... Molten salt batteries are a class of primary cell and secondary cell high temperature electric battery that use molten salts as an electrolyte. ... The kilowatt-hour (symbol: kW·h) is a unit for measuring energy. ...

Charging

Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged (see also Replacing, below). BEVs most commonly charge from the power grid (at home or using a street or shop recharging point), which is in turn generated from a variety of domestic resources; such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear and others. Home power such as roof top photovoltaic solar cell panels, microhydro or wind may also be used and are promoted because of concerns regarding global warming. Transmission towers Transmission lines in Lund, Sweden Electric power transmission, or more accurately Electrical energy transmission, is the second process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. ... A rechargeable lithium polymer Nokia mobile phone battery. ... Mohave Generating Station, a 1,580 MW coal power plant near Laughlin, Nevada A fossil fuel power plant is an energy conversion center that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity, designed on a large scale for continuous operation. ... Hydroelectricity is electricity produced by hydropower. ... This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ... A solar cell, a form of photovoltaic cell, is a device that uses the photoelectric effect to generate electricity from light, thus generating solar power (energy). ... Micro Hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ...

Charging time is limited primarily by the capacity of the grid connection. A normal household outlet is between 1.5 kilowatts (in the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries with 110 Volt supply) to 3 kilowatts (in countries with 240 V supply). The main connection to a house might be able to sustain 10 kilowatts, and special wiring can be installed to use this. At this higher power level charging even a small, 7 kilowatt-hour (14–28 mi) pack, would probably require one hour. This is small compared to the effective power delivery rate of an average petrol pump, about 5,000 kilowatts. Even if the supply power can be increased, most batteries do not accept charge at greater than their charge rate ("1C"), because high charge rate has adverse effect on the discharge capacities of batteries. ^[20] Look up grid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The household is the basic unit of analysis in many microeconomic and government models. ... Outlet may mean: A place or opening by which anything is let out (e. ... The kilowatt (symbol: kW) is a unit for measuring power, equal to one thousand watts. ... Look up V, v in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Gasoline, as it is known in North America, or petrol, in many Commonwealth countries (sometimes also called motor spirit) is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... This article is about a mechanical device. ...

In 1995, some charging stations charged BEVs in one hour. In November 1997, Ford purchased a fast-charge system produced by AeroVironment called "PosiCharge" for testing its fleets of Ranger EVs, which charged their lead-acid batteries in between six and fifteen minutes. In February 1998, General Motors announced a version of its "Magne Charge" system which could recharge NiMH batteries in about ten minutes, providing a range of sixty to one hundred miles.^[21] This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... AeroVironment is a California technology company that is primarily involved in energy systems, electric vehicle systems, and unmanned aerial vehicles. ... The Ford Ranger EV (Electric Vehicle) is a battery electric vehicle produced by Ford Motor Company. ... A nickel metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery but has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium. ...

In 2005, handheld device battery designs by Toshiba were claimed to be able to accept an 80% charge in as little as 60 seconds.^[22] Scaling this specific power characteristic up to the same 7 kilowatt-hour EV pack would result in the need for a peak of 336 kilowatts of power from some source for those 60 seconds. It is not clear that such batteries will work directly in BEVs as heat build-up may make them unsafe. A handheld is most often used to refer to: A personal digital assistant (PDA). ... Toshiba Corporations headquarters (Center) in Hamamatsucho, Tokyo Toshiba Corporation sales by division for year ending March 31, 2005 Toshiba Corporation ) (TYO: 6502 ) is a Japanese multinational conglomerate manufacturing company, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. ... In engineering, specific power (sometimes also power per unit mass or power density) refers to the amount of power delivered by an energy source, divided by some measure of the sources size or mass. ...

In 2007, Altairnano's NanoSafe batteries are rechargeable in a few minutes, versus hours required for other rechargeable batteries.^{[citation needed]} A NanoSafe cell can be charged to over 80% charge capacity in about one minute.^{[citation needed]} Altair Nanotechnologies Inc. ... Altairnano is a industry innovator in the discovery, development and manufacture of ceramic nanomaterials, working with industry and academic partners, have produced novel products for life sciences, alternative energy, air and water purification and advanced materials applications. ...

Most people do not always require fast recharging because they have enough time, six to eight hours, during the work day or overnight to recharge. As the charging does not require attention it takes a few seconds for an owner to plug in and unplug their vehicle. Many BEV drivers prefer refueling at home, avoiding the inconvenience of visiting a fuel station. Some workplaces provide special parking bays for electric vehicles with charging equipment provided. In colder areas such as Minnesota and Canada there exists some infrastructure for public power outlets, in parking garages and at parking meters, provided primarily for engine pre-heating. A plug is: a device which is designed to stop a fluid from flowing through a hole. ... Fuel Stations are points at which vehicles operating on gasoline, diesel, natural gas, or hydrogen can stop at in order to refuel. ...

Connectors

The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways (electric coupling). The first is a direct electrical connection known as conductive coupling. This might be as simple as a mains lead into a weatherproof socket through special high capacity cables with connectors to protect the user from high voltages. The second approach is known as inductive coupling. A special 'paddle' is inserted into a slot on the car. The paddle is one winding of a transformer, while the other is built into the car. When the paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit which provides power to the battery pack. Conductive coupling: Energy transfer achieved by means of physical contact, coupling other than inductive or capacitive coupling. ... Mains may mean or refer to, or be a subject of: Mains electricity Electricity transmission Public utility, about mains services, including electricity, natural gas, water, and sewage disposal Mains (Scotland), about the central steading of a townland BMX racing See also: Main Mane Category: ... A socket generally designates a cavity or region used for fitting and connecting some specific device. ... In electrical engineering High voltage refers to a voltage which is high. ... In electronics, inductive coupling refers to the transfer of energy from one circuit component to another through a shared magnetic field. ... A paddle is a tool, originally a propulsion implement for mixing or pushing against liquids, typically in order to propel a boat. ... A leading edge slot on a Stinson 108-3. ... For other uses, see Transformer (disambiguation). ...

The major advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no possibility of electrocution as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special connectors and ground fault detectors can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Inductive charging can also reduce vehicle weight, by moving more charging componentry offboard.^[23] Conductive coupling equipment is lower in cost and much more efficient due to a vastly lower component count.^{[citation needed]} An inductive charging proponent from Toyota contended in 1998 that overall cost differences were minimal, while a conductive charging proponent from Ford contended that conductive charging was more cost efficient.^[23] Sign warning of possible electric shock hazard An electric shock can occur upon contact of a human or animal body with any source of voltage high enough to cause sufficient current flow through the muscles or nerves. ... A residual current device (RCD) A residual current device (RCD), or residual current circuit breaker (RCCB), is an electrical wiring device that disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the flow of current is not balanced between the phase (hot) conductor and the neutral conductor. ...

Travel range before recharging and trailers

The General Motors EV1 had a range of 75 to 150 miles with NiMH batteries in 1999.

The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used, and the performance demands of the driver. The weight and type of vehicle also have an impact just as they do on the mileage of traditional vehicles. Electric vehicle conversions depends on the battery type: Image File history File links GM_EV.jpg‎ General Motors EV1 This is a copyrighted image that has been released by a company or organization to promote their work or product in the media, such as advertising material or a promotional photo in a press kit. ... Image File history File links GM_EV.jpg‎ General Motors EV1 This is a copyrighted image that has been released by a company or organization to promote their work or product in the media, such as advertising material or a promotional photo in a press kit. ... EV1 redirects here. ... NIMH or NiMH may refer to: National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health. ... The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the burning of a fuel occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. ... An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicle to battery electric propulsion, creating a battery electric vehicle. ...

• Lead-acid batteries are the most available and inexpensive. Such conversions generally have a range of 30 to 80 km (20 to 50 miles). Production EVs with lead-acid batteries are capable of up to 130 km (80 miles) per charge.

• NiMH batteries have higher energy density and may deliver up to 200 km (120 miles) of range.

• New lithium-ion battery-equipped EVs provide 400-500 km (250-300 miles) of range per charge.^[24] Lithium is also less expensive than nickel.^[25]

Finding the economic balance of range versus performance, battery capacity versus weight, and battery type versus cost challenges every EV manufacturer. NIMH or NiMH may refer to: National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health. ... Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in consumer electronics. ...

With an AC system regenerative braking can extend range by up to 50% under extreme traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is extended by about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending upon terrain. Regenerative braking is any technology which allows a vehicle to recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost to heat when braking. ...

BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers in order to extended their range when desired without the additional weight during normal short range use. Discharged baset trailers can be replaced by recharged ones in a route point. If rented then maintenance costs can be deferred to the agency. Genset trailers are gassoline fueled trailers with generators which can be hitched up to an electric vehicle and provide the average energy required to give the vehicle unlimited range. ... Pusher trailers are gassoline fueled trailers with traditional ICE and transmissions which can be hitched up to an electric vehicle and run from the cockpit to give the vehicle unlimited range. ...

Such BEVs can become Hybrid vehicles depending on the trailer and car types of energy and powertrain. For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ...

Replacing

An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or battery range extender modules) with fully charged batteries. A123Systems is a developer of next generation Lithium-Ion batteries. ...

Re-filling

Zinc-bromine flow batteries can be re-filled, instead of recharged, saving time. The zinc-bromine flow battery is a type of hybrid flow battery. ...

V2G: uploading and grid buffering

Main article: Vehicle-to-grid

Smart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid in anytime, specially: Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology is a bi-directional grid interface for gridable vehicles such as Battery Electric Vehicles and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles. ... A Smart meter generally refers to a type of advanced meter (usually an electrical meter) that identifies consumption in more detail than a conventional meter, and optionally communicates that information via some network back to the local utility for monitoring and billing purposes. ...

• During peak load periods, when the selling price of electricity can be very high. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. Here the vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system to buffer power.

• During blackouts, as backup.

In electrical engineering, a load profile is a graph of the variation in the electrical load versus time. ... Mount Cook, a mountain in New Zealand A mountain is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain in a limited area. ... Tree limbs create a short circuit in electrical lines during a storm that spawned two tornados. ...

Lifespan

Individual batteries are usually arranged into large battery packs of various voltage and ampere-hour capacity products to give the required energy capacity. Battery life should be considered when calculating the extended cost of ownership, as all batteries eventually wear out and must be replaced. The rate at which they expire depends on a number of factors. A battery pack is a set of any number of (preferably) identical batteries or individual battery cells. ... International safety symbol Caution, risk of electric shock (ISO 3864), colloquially known as high voltage symbol. ... An ampere-hour (abbreviated as Ah or A-h) is a unit of electric charge. ... An ampere-hour (abbreviated as Ah or A-h) is a unit of electric charge. ...

The depth of discharge (DOD) is the recommended proportion of the total available energy storage for which that battery will achieve its rated cycles. Deep cycle lead-acid batteries generally should not be discharged below 80% capacity. More modern formulations can survive deeper cycles.

In real world use, some fleet Toyota RAV4 EVs, using NiMH batteries, have exceeded 100,000 miles (160,000 km) with little degradation in their daily range.^[26] Quoting that report's concluding assessment: This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... NIMH or NiMH may refer to: National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the United States National Institutes of Health. ...

"The five-vehicle test is demonstrating the long-term durability of Nickel Metal Hydride batteries and electric drive trains. Only slight performance degradation has been observed to-date on four out of five vehicles.... EVTC test data provide strong evidence that all five vehicles will exceed the 100,000-mile mark. SCE’s positive experience points to the very strong likelihood of a 130,000 to 150,000-mile Nickel Metal Hydride battery and drive-train operational life. EVs can therefore match or exceed the lifecycle miles of comparable internal combustion engine vehicles.

"In June 2003 the 320 RAV4 EVs of the SCE fleet were used primarily by meter readers, service managers, field representatives, service planners and mail handlers, and for security patrols and carpools. In five years of operation, the RAV4 EV fleet had logged more than 6.9 million miles, eliminating about 830 tons of air pollutants, and preventing more than 3,700 tons of tailpipe carbon dioxide emissions. Given the successful operation of its EVs to-date, SCE plans to continue using them well after they all log 100,000-miles."

Jay Leno's 1909 Baker Electric (see Baker Motor Vehicle) still operates on its original Edison cells. Battery replacement costs of BEVs may be partially or fully offset by the lack of regular maintenance such as oil and filter changes required for ICEVs, and by the greater reliability of BEVs due to their fewer moving parts. They also do away with many other parts that normally require servicing and maintenance in a regular car, such as on the gearbox, cooling system, and engine tuning. And by the time batteries do finally need definitive replacement, they can be replaced with later generation ones which may offer better performance characteristics, in the same way as you might replace old batteries from a digital camera with improved ones. Jay Leno (born April 28, 1950) is an Emmy-winning American comedian and writer who is best known as the current host of NBC televisions long-running variety and talk program The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. ... Baker Motor Vehicle Company was a manufacturer of Brass Era electric automobiles in Cleveland, Ohio. ... The nickel-iron battery is a storage battery having a Nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide cathode and an iron anode, with an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. ... Synthetic motor oil For other uses, see Oil (disambiguation). ... In chemistry and common usage, a filter is a device (usually a membrane or layer) that is designed to block certain objects or substances while letting others through. ...

Safety

The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues: ISO has many meanings: Iso is the stem of the Latin transliteration of the Greek word ίσος (ísos, meaning equal). The iso- prefix in English derives from this and means equality or similarity. ...

• On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery
• Functional safety means and protection against failures
• Protection of persons against electrical hazards.

Firefighters and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents may present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge, there is apparently no available information regarding whether they are inherently more or less dangerous than gasoline or diesel internal combustion vehicles which carry flammable fuels. A Canadian firefighter A firefighter or fireman is trained and equipped to extinguish fires. ...

Future

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the cost and availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, and long life, as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost-competitive with internal combustion engine components. Li-ion, Li-poly and zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles. A rechargeable lithium polymer Nokia mobile phone battery. ... Li-Ion Camera Battery Lithium ion batteries (or Li-ion) have become very common and dropped in price recently. ... Lithium ion polymer batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. ... Zinc-air batteries, also called “zinc-air fuel cells,“ are non-rechargeable electro-chemical batteries powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. ...

Bolloré a French automative parts group developed a concept car the "Bluecar" using Lithium metal polymer batteries developed by a subsidiary Batscap. It had a range of 250 km and top speed of 125 km/h.(Bluecar) document

The cathodes of early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is pricey, and can release oxygen if its cell is overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. The price premium for early 2007 hybrids is about US $5000, some $3000 of which is for their NiMH battery packs. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, that would break even after six to ten years of operation. The hybrid premium could fall to $2000 in five years, with $1200 or more of that being cost of lithium-ion batteries, providing a three-year payback.^[27]

Hobbyists, conversions, and racing

Bob Schneeveis demonstrates his Silver Sofa hobbyist BEV at the 2005 33rd annual Silicon Valley Electric Automobile Association's Stanford Electric Car Rally.

The Silver Sofa can spin in place and is charged by solar panels. It is intended for use at off–road events such as Burning Man

Hobbyists often build their own EVs by converting existing production cars to run solely on electricity. There is a cottage industry supporting the conversion and construction of BEVs by hobbyists. Universities such as the University of California, Irvine even build their own custom electric or hybrid-electric cars from scratch. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x1024, 373 KB)Novelty electric vehicle. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x1024, 373 KB)Novelty electric vehicle. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x1024, 449 KB)Back side of the novelty electric vehicle Silver Sofa, created by the legendary battlebot and battery electric vehicle innovator Bob Schneeveis. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1280x1024, 449 KB)Back side of the novelty electric vehicle Silver Sofa, created by the legendary battlebot and battery electric vehicle innovator Bob Schneeveis. ... The event is named after its Saturday night ritual, the burning of a wooden effigy. ... An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicle to battery electric propulsion, creating a battery electric vehicle. ... The use of the term has expanded, and is used to refer to any event which allows a large number of people to lalalawork part time. ... The University of California, Irvine is a public research university primarily situated in suburban Irvine, California, USA. Founded in 1965, it is one of ten University of California campuses and is commonly known as UCI or UC Irvine. ...

Short-range battery electric vehicles offer the hobbyist comfort, utility, and quickness, sacrificing only range. Short-range BEVs may be built using high-performance lead–acid batteries, using about half the mass needed for a 60 to 80 mile (100 to 130 km) range; the result is a vehicle with about a thirty mile (50 km) range, which when designed with appropriate weight distribution (40/60 front to rear) does not require power steering, offers exceptional acceleration in the lower end of its operating range, is freeway capable and legal, but are expensive due to the higher cost for these higher-performance batteries. By including a manual transmission, short-range BEVs can obtain both better performance and greater efficiency than the single-speed BEVs developed by major manufactures. Unlike the converted golf carts used for neighborhood electric vehicles, short-range BEVs may be operated on typical suburban throughways (40 to 45 mph or 60 or 70 km/h speed limits are typical) and can keep up with traffic typical on such roads and the short "slow-lane" on-and-off segments of freeways common in suburban areas. Power steering is a system for reducing the steering effort on cars by using an external power source to assist in turning the wheels. ... A manual transmission (also known as a stick shift, straight drive, or standard transmission) is a type of transmission used in automotive applications. ... A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV) is an American term for a speed limited battery electric vehicle (usually 25 miles per hour in the U.S.A.) restricted by law to operation on roads with speed limits not exceeding 35 MPH. Often such vehicles are not built from scratch but instead...

Some drag race such conversions as members of National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA). Battery electric vehicles are also very popular in quarter mile (400 m) racing. The NEDRA regularly holds electric car races and often competes them successfully against exotics such as the Dodge Viper or Saleen S7. The National Electric Drag Racing Assossiation is a North American-based racing league for competing electric vehicles against each other and against current high performance or classic muscle cars. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The Saleen S7 is a limited edition, hand built supercar developed jointly by Saleen, Hidden Creek Industries, Phil Frank Design and RML, and produced solely by Saleen in Irvine, California. ...

Japanese Professor Hiroshi Shimizu from Faculty of Environmental Information of the Keio University created the limousine of the future: the Eliica (Electric Lithium Ion Car) has eight wheels with electric 55 kilowatt hub motors (8WD) with an output of 470 kilowatts and zero emissions. With a top speed of 370 kilometers per hour, and a maximum reach of 320 kilometers provided by lithium-ion-batteries. (video at eliica.com) However, current models cost approximately $300,000 US, about half of which is the cost of the batteries. ^{[citation needed]} Keio University ) is one of the oldest private universities in Japan. ... The Eliica (or the Electric Lithium-Ion battery Car) is an electric car prototype, or concept car designed by a team at Keio University in Tokyo, led by Professor Hiroshi Shimizu. ...

Eliica prototype

ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (890x353, 80 KB) Summary promotional photo of the Eliica concept car, taken from http://www. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (890x353, 80 KB) Summary promotional photo of the Eliica concept car, taken from http://www. ... The Eliica (or the Electric Lithium-Ion battery Car) is an electric car prototype, or concept car designed by a team at Keio University in Tokyo, led by Professor Hiroshi Shimizu. ...

Controversy

EV1s crushed by General Motors shortly after their leases expired

Most of the EVs produced in response to the CARB ZEV initiative by the three major US automobile manufacturers, General Motors, Chrysler Corporation and Ford Motor Company, as well as Honda, Nissan and Toyota were recalled and destroyed when the initiative was withdrawn. Notable exceptions are many of the Toyota RAV4 EVs and the Ford Th!nk. Moreover, the three major American motor companies almost exclusively promoted their electric cars in the American market, where gas has been comparatively cheap, and virtually ignored the European market, where gas is significantly more expensive. The apparent lack of good faith attempts to meet the ZEV initiative are addressed in a film on the subject, directed by former EV1 owner and activist Chris Paine, entitled Who Killed the Electric Car? which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2006, and was released July 2006. Image File history File links Evcrushed. ... Image File history File links Evcrushed. ... EV1 redirects here. ... General Motors Corporation, also known as GM or The General, an American multinational conglomerate corporation, is the worlds largest auto company by annual production volume for 2006, and the second largest by sales volume as of the first half of 2007, behind Toyota Motor Corporation. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... The Chrysler Corporation was a United States-based automobile manufacturer that existed independently from 1925–1998. ... “Ford” redirects here. ... This article is about the Japanese motor corporation. ... Nissan Motor Co. ... This article is about the automaker. ... Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film that explores the birth, limited commercialization, and subsequent death of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s. ... The Sundance Film Festival is a film festival in the United States, and ranks alongside the Cannes, France, Venice, Italy, Berlin, Germany, and Toronto, Canada festivals as one of the most prestigious in the world. ... Robert De Niro and Jane Rosenthal 2005 The TriBeCa Film Festival was founded in 2002 by Jane Rosenthal and Robert De Niro in a response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the consequent loss of vitality in the TriBeCa neighborhood in Manhattan. ...

Proponents' arguments

Supporters point out the following:^{[citation needed]}

• BEVs reduce dependence on oil.
• BEVs reduce dependence on price manipulated oil markets.
• BEVs reduce vehicle energy costs by up to 90%
• BEVs are up to 75% energy efficient (with ReGen) VS as little as 15% for a petrol ICE powered car (inc. transmission losses)
• BEVs have much more torque than an ICE (for a given power rating) and a flat torque curve.
• BEVs mitigate global warming (if a renewable, carbon-free energy source is used such as nuclear power )
• BEVs are quieter than internal combustion engine vehicles (Though in the newest ICE vehicles, engines only account for a small fraction of the noise; most noise is produced by tires and aerodynamics in an equal measure as BEVs).
• BEVs do not produce noxious fumes.
• BEVs can readily satisfy the needs for short trips and up to 500 km with Li-Ion and regeneration.
• Home recharging is more convenient than trips to gasoline stations.
• BEVs can be recharged during regenerative braking (by converting the vehicle's kinetic energy to chemical energy stored in the battery).
• Recharging costs are more predictable than gas prices, and not subject to volatile international incidents.
• Maintenance such as oil changes, smog inspections (and their sometimes expensive consequences), cooling fluid replacement, and periodic repair and adjustments are reduced or completely eliminated, significantly reducing the cost of ownership.
• BEVs can be powered indirectly by home photovoltaics using net metering, which offers advantages to both power producers and other grid users through peak demand satisfaction and to the EV user through cost reduction and load balancing, especially with time of use net metering.
• BEVs can provide power to a home in the case of a power outage if specially equipped.
• Even if powered by electricity from polluting coal plants, they are still far more energy efficient than gasoline-powered cars.
• In case of an accident or during refueling no need to be worried about burning or exploding gasoline.
• BEVs are favorable to hydrogen vehicles because there is no need to invest in a large scale system of hydrogen distribution/storage, and BEVs have a significantly higher energy conversion efficiency than hydrogen electrolization cycles. The electricity distribution system is already in place.
• BEVs are powered by electricity, which can be produced from wind, hydro, solar or nuclear power giving zero carbon emmisions.

Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ... This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ... Regenerative braking is any technology which allows a vehicle to recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost to heat when braking. ... The cars of a roller coaster reach their maximum kinetic energy when at the bottom of their path. ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ... Net metering is a electricity policy for consumers who own, generally small, renewable energy facilities, such as wind or solar power, or uses vehicle-to-grid systems. ... Bold text Sequel, a fuel cell-powered vehicle from General Motors A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its on-board fuel for motive power. ... This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ...

Opponents' arguments

Skeptics of the viability of BEVs argue on conventional practicality grounds and in more general terms. Practicality grounds include:^{[citation needed]}

• Electricity is produced using such methods as burning coal, producing about 0.97 kg of CO₂ (2.1 pounds) per kilowatt-hour[4] plus other pollutants and strip-mining damages: electric vehicles are therefore not "zero emissions" in any real-world sense, except at their point of use unless renewable energy (solar, wind, wave, tidal, geothermal, nuclear or hydro power) is employed;
• Zero emission electrical sources such as solar panels must still be manufactured, producing various pollutants.
• Limited driving range available between recharging (using certain battery technologies)
• Expensive batteries, which may cost anywhere from under US$1,500 (lead acid) to $20,000 (li-ion) to replace;
• Poor cold weather performance of some kinds of batteries.
• Danger of electrocution and electromagnetic interference. ^{[citation needed]}
• Poor availability of public charging stations reduces practicality and may hinder initial take-up. People who live in flats or houses without private parking may not have an option to charge the vehicle at home.

It can also be argued that the current state of the automobile industry is simply experiencing a shift due to superseding technologies, as was the case when the automobile drove the production of horse-drawn carriages, saddles, and buggy-whips into obscurity. Future automobiles will thus shift toward low-cost and low-maintenance items, compared to today. Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Look up range in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The problem of energy supply for transport may not be solved by choosing other energy sources but by rightsizing the vehicles and their usage. With Low-energy vehicles much of the above mentioned problems no longer exist - ultralights like the TWIKE even allow to contribute pedaling. A low-energy vehicle is any type of vehicle that uses less energy than a regular vehicle. ... The Twike (TWin bIKE) is a Light Electric Vehicle (LEV) with hybrid human power as an option. ...

See also

Sustainable development Portal

Electric scooter at the 2005 Vancouver EV gathering

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of

Electric vehicle conversion chapter: technologies

• Car battery
• Electric boat
• Electric bus
• Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA)
• Electric motorcycles and scooters
• Electric vehicle conversion
• Electrocar
• Green tuning
• Green Vehicle Showroom electric vehicles
• Hybrid vehicle
• List of production battery electric vehicles
• Milk float
• NEDRA (national electric drag racing association)
• Neighborhood electric vehicle
• Plug-in hybrid (PHEV)
• Rechargable battery
• Traction motor
• Vehicle-to-grid
• Zero-emissions vehicle
• Who Killed the Electric Car?

Image File history File links Sustainable_development. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1416x876, 376 KB)Electric scooter seen at the 2005 Vancouver EV gathering. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1416x876, 376 KB)Electric scooter seen at the 2005 Vancouver EV gathering. ... Electric scooter can mean: Mobility scooter Electric kick scooter Electric motor scooter This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo-en. ... Wikibooks logo Wikibooks, previously called Wikimedia Free Textbook Project and Wikimedia-Textbooks, is a wiki for the creation of books. ... Lead-acid car battery A car battery is a type of rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile. ... While most boats on the water today are powered by diesel engines, and sail power and gasoline engines are also popular, it is perfectly feasible to power boats by electricity too. ... An articulated trolleybus in Arnhem, Netherlands A trolleybus (also known as electric bus, trolley bus, trolley coach, trackless trolley, trackless tram or simply trolley) is a bus powered by two overhead electric wires, from which it draws electricity using two trolley poles. ... EDTA is EDTA, a popular acronym for the chemical compound ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. ... VentureOne computer generated image of 3 wheeler concept vehicle Electric motorcycles and scooters are vehicles with two or three wheels that use electric motors to attain locomotion. ... An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicle to battery electric propulsion, creating a battery electric vehicle. ... Small electric vehicle in Ostend train station, Belgium Electrocar, Electrocart (Russian: ) is an electric vehicle, typically a small cart with an electrical driving gear and a storage battery. ... Green tuned cars are cars that have been tuned to use initial or deeper alternative propulsion. ... Los Gatos redirects here. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... // For more details on this topic, see Category:Production electric vehicles. ... A milk float in Liverpool city centre, June 2005 A milk float is a small battery electric vehicle (BEV), specifically designed for the delivery of fresh milk. ... David Eddings fantasy saga The Belgariad, and the later works that share the setting (The Malloreon, Belgarath the Sorcerer, Polgara the Sorceress), describes a pantheon of seven gods. ... A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV) is an American term for a speed limited battery electric vehicle (usually 25 miles per hour in the U.S.A.) restricted by law to operation on roads with speed limits not exceeding 35 MPH. Often such vehicles are not built from scratch but instead... Hybrids Plus plug-in hybrid Toyota Prius conversion with PHEV-30 (30 mile or 48 km all-electric range) battery packs A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an electric power source. ... Rechargeable batteries are batteries that can be restored to full charge by the application of electrical energy. ... Traction motor typically refers to those motors that are used to power the driving wheels of a railroad locomotive, electrical multi-unit train (such as a subway or light rail vehicle train), or a tram. ... Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology is a bi-directional grid interface for gridable vehicles such as Battery Electric Vehicles and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles. ... General Motors EV1 A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV will produce no emissions or pollution from the vehicle when stationary or operating. ... Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 documentary film that explores the birth, limited commercialization, and subsequent death of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s. ...

References

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External links

Patents

• U.S. Patent 523,354 , E. E. Keller, Electrically Propelled Preambulator
• U.S. Patent 594,805 , Hiram Stevens Maxim, Motor vehicle
• U.S. Patent 772,571 , H. S. Maxim, Electric motor vehicle

Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim, 1916 1895 . ...

Organizations

• Open Source Electric Car by Society for Sustainable Mobility
• US Electric Auto Association (EAA) and recharging points
• Battery Vehicle Society (UK) and recharging points.
• The European Association for Electric Vehicles (AVERE).
• Electric Car Society (formally known as the Electric Car Owners Club).
• EVCanada - Promoting the uptake of Electric Vehicles in Canada
• Czech EV Club - (CZ) Eng. section in photogallery

News stories

• Chinese government statistics put the number of e-bikes at 28 million Expected sales in 2007
• Mitsubishi forms joint venture for lithium-ion battery production for MIEV May 8, 2007
• GM Engineer discusses battery integration challenge - Jan 30, 2007
• GM does U-turn on electric car program, now says electric cars are the future 7 November 2006