British Expeditionary Force D, mostly made up of Indians and under the command of Gen. Sir John Nixon, had met with success in Mesopotamia since landing at Fao upon the Ottoman Declaration of War on November 5, 1914. The only real reason for landing in Mesopotamia was to defend the oil refinery at Abadan at the mouth of the Shatt el-Arab. Adopting a forward defence policy, the British army under General Townshend fought off a series of small Turkish force. Then after a year of defeat, the Turks were able to halt the British advance in two days of hard fighting at Ctesiphon. Combatants Entente Powers Central Powers Commanders {{{commander1}}} {{{commander2}}} Strength {{{strength1}}} {{{strength2}}} Casualties > 5 million military deaths > 3 million military deaths World War I, also known as the First World War and (before 1939) the Great War, the War of the Nations, War to End All Wars was a world conflict... The Mesopotamian Campaign was a theater of the First World War fought between Allied forces represented by British and Anglo-Indian troops, and Central forces of the Ottoman Empire. ... November 22 is the 326th day (327th on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1915 (MCMXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... November 25 is the 329th (in leap years the 330th) day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1915 (MCMXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Ctesiphon (Parthian: Tyspwn as well as Tisfun) is one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia and the capital of the Iranian Parthian Empire and its successor, the Sassanid Empire, for more than 800 years located in ancient Iranian province of Khvarvaran. ... Casus belli is a Latin expression from the international law theory of Jus ad bellum. ... For an explanation of terms like England, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology) Motto: Dieu et mon droit (Royal motto) (French for God and my right)3 Anthem: God Save the Queen4 Capital London Largest city London Official language(s) English de facto 5 Government Monarch Prime... Motto: SatyamÄ“va JayatÄ“ Sanskrit: सत्यमेव जयते (Truth Alone Triumphs) Anthem: Jana Gana Mana Capital New Delhi Largest city Mumbai (Bombay) Official language(s) Hindi, English, and 21 other languages Government President Prime Minister Federal republic APJ Abdul Kalam Dr. Manmohan Singh Independence  - Declared  - Republic From the United Kingdom 1947-08-15... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (the Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital Bursa (1335 - 1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Ä°stanbul (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million... Warning: this article is based primarily on information from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica and does not reflect modern scholarship. ... The Siege of Kut-al-Amara (December 7, 1915 - April 29, 1916) was part of the Mesopotamian campaign in World War I. The British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force (MEF) suffered a very serious defeat against the Ottoman forces. ... The Siege of Kut-al-Amara (December 7, 1915 - April 29, 1916) was part of the Mesopotamian campaign in World War I. The British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force (MEF) suffered a very serious defeat against the Ottoman forces. ... Combatants The Tigris Corps of British India Sixth Army of the Ottoman Empire Commanders Sir Frederick Stanley Maude Khalil Pasha Strength 50,000 men 25,000 men Casualties unknown unknown, more than 9,000 were taken prisoner Baghdad was the southern capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. ... The Mesopotamian Campaign was a theater of the First World War fought between Allied forces represented by British and Anglo-Indian troops, and Central forces of the Ottoman Empire. ... November 5 is the 309th day of the year (310th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 56 days remaining. ... 1914 (MCMXIV) is a common year starting on Thursday. ... Sumerian list of gods in cuneiform script, ca. ... Abadan (آبادان in Persian) is a city in the Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran (Persia). ... Ctesiphon (Parthian: Tyspwn as well as Tisfun) is one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia and the capital of the Iranian Parthian Empire and its successor, the Sassanid Empire, for more than 800 years located in ancient Iranian province of Khvarvaran. ...

Battleground

Ctesiphon lies on the left bank of the Tigris River in the barren Iraqi desert, about 380 miles upstream from Basra, 40 mi. North of Kut al-Amara, and 16 mi. South-East of Baghdad. It is a good defensive position located in a 6 mile long loop of the Tigris river. At the town there is a ruined palace, the remains of a Parthian capital. The Tigris (Old Persian: Tigr, Syriac Aramaic: Deqlath, Arabic: دجلة, Dijla, Turkish: Dicle; biblical Hiddekil) is the eastern member of the pair of great rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of Anatolia through Iraq. ... Location of Basra Basra (also spelled BaÅŸrah or Basara; historically sometimes written Busra, Busrah, and the early form Bassorah; Arabic: , Al-Basrah) is the second largest city of Iraq with an estimated population of c. ... KÅ«t (كوت; also known as Kut-Al-Imara and Kut El Amara) is a city in eastern Iraq, on the left bank of the Tigris River, about 100 miles south east of Baghdad, at 32. ... Location of Baghdad within Iraq Baghdad (Arabic: , Persian: بغداد (Meaning in Persian : from angels) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Province. ...

The Turks had formed a well camoflaged and formidable line of trenches crossing the river. There were two lines of trenches, there was also a twenty foot high ancient wall three miles south of the main line used for observation by the Turks.

The Turkish forces initially consisted of approximately 18,000 men and 52 guns. By the time the British attacked they had been reinforced from Baghdad bringing the number up to around 30,000. The Ottoman army was now (as of October) under the command of Baron von der Goltz, a well known German general, military historian and, for 12 years, the modernizer of the Turkish army. Baron von der Goltz was old but he was an expert on military matters and had a deep understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the Ottoman army. Location of Baghdad within Iraq Baghdad (Arabic: , Persian: بغداد (Meaning in Persian : from angels) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Province. ... Warning: this article is based primarily on information from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica and does not reflect modern scholarship. ...

The British force consisted of the 6th Poona Division, at a strength of around 11,000 men. Note that some British troops had been left behind to garrison the recently captured town and river junction of Kut. Kūt (كوت; also known as Kut-Al-Imara and Kut El Amara) is a city in eastern Iraq, on the left bank of the Tigris River, about 100 miles south east of Baghdad, at 32. ...

The British advance past Kut was slow, partly due to the bad weather and wet ground and partly due to General Townshend's reluctance to advance further. But the Commander-in-Chief of British forces in the region, General Nixon, ordered Townshend to take Baghdad. So, he commenced his march up the Tigris river. Location of Baghdad within Iraq Baghdad (Arabic: , Persian: بغداد (Meaning in Persian : from angels) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Province. ... The Tigris (Old Persian: Tigr, Syriac Aramaic: Deqlath, Arabic: دجلة, Dijla, Turkish: Dicle; biblical Hiddekil) is the eastern member of the pair of great rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of Anatolia through Iraq. ...

British Attack Plan

Townshend's plan of attack was to separate his force into four columns. Three infantry columns, designated columns A, B, and C, were scheduled for a frontal attack on different points of the Turkish lines. The other column, referred to as the flying column, was made up of a mix of cavalry and infantry, and was supposed to swing around the left flank of the Turkish lines. The attack was to be supported by two river boats, a gunboat and the HMS Firefly.

Movements and the Clash

Townshend, intending to copy his success at Battle of Es Sinn, ordered a night march in the closing hours of November 21, 1915, with the aim of attacking at dawn on the November 22. The attack happened on schedule but due to poor ground conditions on the west bank the British ended up attacking the much stronger east bank positions. November 21 is the 325th day of the year (326th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1915 (MCMXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... November 22 is the 326th day (327th on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The advance was supposed to be supported by river gunboats, however two things prevented the gun boats from becoming a factor in the battle. First, the Turkish guns on the west bank rained fire upon them. Secondly, the Tigris was extensively mined and several river obstructions made navigation difficult.

At the beginning of the battle, C-Column, the one closest to the river bank came under heavy small arms and artillery fire and failed to reach the first trench line. A-Column, in the middle, was also halted short of the trench line.

On the right, B-Column (mainly Punjabis and Gurkhas) reached the first line of trenches, forced the Turks to retreat and pursued the retreating enemy towards the 2nd line of trenches.

Townshend then ordered C-Column to fall back, and try and exploit the breakthrough. This movement was rather complicated and the task was made difficult by Turks on the wall firing into their flank. Meanwhile the flying column bogged down in inconclusive fighting against Turkish and Arab Cavalry.

By the end of the day the 6th Poona Division had captured the first line of trenches. But the British sustained heavy casualties.

Second Day

On the second day the Ottomans attacked the British positions. This counter-attack, intended to retake the first line of trenches, was weak and stopped shortly after it started. That night, they attacked again in greater strength. The fight was much harder than in the morning, but the British line held. Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (the Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital Bursa (1335 - 1365), Edirne (1365-1453), İstanbul (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanli Dynasty Population ca 40 million...

Day Three

On November 24, Baron von der Goltz ordered a general withdrawal. By the time the British realized the Ottoman forces were retreating, General Townshend had concluded he needed to retreat as well, his losses had been too great to continue the effort to take Baghdad. So both sides ended up retreating from the field of battle. November 24 is the 328th day (329th on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

Aftermath

The 6th Poona Division had sustained a 40% casualty rate, losing about 4,600 troops. They were exhausted from the heavy fighting of the past two days and had an effective strength of about 8,500. Townshend decided a retreat back towards Kut was necessary to rebuild the strength of his army.

The Ottoman Army had sustained casualties of 9,500. But they had short supply lines and were able to get reinforcements from Baghdad and the northern provinces. Baron von der Goltz, learning that the British were also retreating, turned his army around and pursued the British. The Turks followed the British to Kut.

Main articles: Siege of Kut, and [[{{{2}}}]], and [[{{{3}}}]], and [[{{{4}}}]], and [[{{{5}}}]]

Ctesiphon and its aftermath revealed a key British weakness in this campaign: an inadequate supply line. The British troops were undersupplied and their medical corps was understaffed considering the number of troops and rate of casualities (from battle and from disease). In the later campaign which lead to the capture of Baghdad by General Maude, logistics was much better dealt with. The Siege of Kut-al-Amara (December 7, 1915 - April 29, 1916) was part of the Mesopotamian campaign in World War I. The British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force (MEF) suffered a very serious defeat against the Ottoman forces. ... Combatants The Tigris Corps of British India Sixth Army of the Ottoman Empire Commanders Sir Frederick Stanley Maude Khalil Pasha Strength 50,000 men 25,000 men Casualties unknown unknown, more than 9,000 were taken prisoner Baghdad was the southern capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. ... General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude (June 24, 1864 - November 18, 1917) was a British soldier. ...

Sources

• The Battle of Ctesiphon - Downloaded from The Long, Long Trail: The Story of the British Army in the Great War of 1914-1918. Retrieved August 16, 2005.
• Bruce, A. (n.d.). 22nd - 25th November 1915 - The Battle of Ctesiphon. [Electronic Version] An Illustrated Companion to the First World War.
• The Battle of Ctesiphon, 1915 - from The First World War. Retrieved August 16, 2005.
• Millar, Ronald W. (1970). Death of an Army: The Siege of Kut, 1915- 1916. London: Houghton Mifflin.