The Battle of Ctesiphon took place in June 26, 363 AD between the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate and the Persian emperor Shapur II outside the walls of Ctesiphon, the Persian capital. The battle was an inconclusive Roman victory, as Julian was killed in battle and the Roman forces were far from their supply lines. June 26 is the 177th day of the year (178th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 188 days remaining. ... Events Perisapora is destroyed by Emperor Julian. ... Ctesiphon (Parthian: Tyspwn as well as Tisfun) is one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia and the capital of the Iranian Parthian Empire and its successor, the Sassanid Empire, for more than 800 years located in ancient Iranian province of Khvarvaran. ... Casus belli is a Latin expression from the international law theory of Jus ad bellum. ... Julian solidus, ca. ... Shapur II was king of Persia (310 - 379). ... June 26 is the 177th day of the year (178th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 188 days remaining. ... Events Perisapora is destroyed by Emperor Julian. ... Roman Emperor is the term historians use to refer to rulers of the Roman Empire, after the epoch conventionally named the Roman Republic. ... Julian solidus, ca. ... The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Shapur II was king of Persia (310 - 379). ... Ctesiphon (Parthian: Tyspwn as well as Tisfun) is one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia and the capital of the Iranian Parthian Empire and its successor, the Sassanid Empire, for more than 800 years located in ancient Iranian province of Khvarvaran. ...

Background

On November 3, 361 Constantius II died at Tarsus, leaving Julian the Apostate as sole emperor of Rome. Arriving at Constantinople to oversee Constantius' burial, Julian soon began to repair the damage done, reorganizing and streamlining the government. November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 58 days remaining. ... Events Emperor Ai succeeds Emperor Mu as emperor of China. ... emperor Constantius II Constantius II, Byzantine Emperor (7 August 317 - 3 November 361, reigned 337 - 361), was the middle of the three sons of Constantine I the Great and Fausta. ... In tetrapods, the tarsi are the cluster of bones in the foot between the tibia and fibula and the metatarsus. ... Julian solidus, ca. ... Map of Constantinople. ...

However, Shapur II of Persia posed a greater threat. After a number of inconclusive campaigns, the Persian emperor had captured Amida in 359, controlling the headwaters of the Tigris and the entrance to Asia Minor from the east. A Roman offensive was desperately needed to check Shapur. Diyarbakırs early Byzantine city walls stretch unbroken for 6 kilometres A busy food market in central Diyarbakır The 12th century Ulu Cami dominates the city skyline Diyarbakır (Kurdish and Aramaic: Amed, Syriac: ܐܡܝܕ; Greek: Amida) is a city in Turkey, situated on the banks of the River... Events Battle of Amida: Shapur II of Persia conquers Amida from the Romans. ... Tigris River in Mosul, Iraq The Tigris (Old Persian: Tigrā-, Pahlavi: Tigr, Syriac: ܕܩܠܬ; Deqlath, Arabic: دجلة; Dijla, Turkish: Dicle, Hebrew: חדקל; ḥiddeqel) is the eastern member of the pair of great rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of Anatolia through Iraq. ... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey. ...

Julian, believing himself to be the next Alexander the Great, began preparing for a Persian exhibition against the Sassanid dynasty, moving from Constantinople. In the summer of 362 he transferred his capital to Antioch and on March 5, 363, set out with 90,000 men. Alexander the Great fighting Persian king Darius (not in frame) (Pompeii mosaic, from a 3rd century BC original Greek painting, now lost). ... -1... Events February 21 - Athanasius returns to Alexandria. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... March 5 is the 64th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (65th in leap years). ... Events Perisapora is destroyed by Emperor Julian. ...

The Battle

The Persians opted for a scorched earth policy and after a few minor skirmishes and sieges Julian arrived with his undefeated army before the walls of Ctesiphon on May 29. Outside the walls a Persian army under Merena was formed up for battle across the Tigris. A scorched earth defense is a military tactic which involves destroying anything that might be useful to the enemy while advancing through or withdrawing from an area. ... May 29 is the 149th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (150th in leap years). ...

Julian's subordinate commanders were nervous, as the Persian army featured cataphracts in the centre and the formidable clibanarii on the wings. There were also war elephants and masses of infantry to the rear. However, Julian had already shown himself to be an excellent general and did not share his subordinates’ worries. Instead, he drew up his army in a crescent and crossed the river to engage the enemy. Sarmatian Cataphract The cataphract (Greek κατάφρακτος) was a type of heavy cavalryman used primarily in eastern and southeastern Europe, in Anatolia and Iran from late antiquity up through the High Middle Ages. ... The Clibanarii (from the Latin, clibani, meaning campoven) were a late Roman and Byzantine military unit of heavy armored horsemen. ... Indian war elephant, relief at Mathura, 2nd century BC War elephants were important, although not widespread, weapons in ancient military history. ... Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme, First World War. ... A crescent is the shape produced when from a circular disk the disk of a circle which is a little smaller and tangent on the inside to the larger circle, is cut. ...

The wings of the Romans advanced swiftly and battle was joined. Contrary to expectations, the battle was a stunning victory for the Romans, losing only 70 men to the Persians 2,500 men.

However, Julian lacked the equipment to lay siege to Ctesiphon and Shapur's main army, far larger than the one Julian had just defeated was closing in quickly. Julian was in favour of advancing further into Persian territory. He was overruled by his officers. Roman morale was low, disease was spreading, and there was very little forage around. For the Boston area punk band see Siege (band). ... Forage is the herbaceous plant material (mainly grasses and legumes) eaten by grazing animals. ...

Death of Emperor Julian

Reluctantly, Julian agreed to retreat back along the Tigris and meet up with the other half of his army. On June 16, the retreat began and ten days later, outside Samarra, the army’s rearguard came under heavy attack. June 16 is the 167th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (168th in leap years), with 198 days remaining. ... The two Shiite mosques in Samarra A soldier descends a Minaret in Samarra, Iraq. ...

Not even pausing to put on his armour, Julian plunged into the fray shouting encouragement to his men. He was so confident of victory —or merely eager and forgetful— that he was not wearing armour. Just as the Persians were beginning to pull out with heavy losses, Julian was struck in the side by a flying spear. Pulling it out of his liver he died before midnight. Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were "Vicisti, Galilæe" ("Thou hast conquered, Galilean"), supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, Christianity would become the Empire's state religion. The neutrality of this article is disputed. ...

Libanius states that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers; this charge is not corroborated by Ammianus Marcellinus or other contemporary historians. Libanius (Greek Libanios) (ca 314 AD - ca 394) was a Greek-speaking teacher of rhetoric of the later Roman Empire, an educated pagan of the Sophist school in an Empire that was turning aggressively Christian and publicly burned its own heritage and closed the academies. ... Ammianus Marcellinus is a Roman historian who wrote during Late Antiquity. ...

Aftermath

Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor Jovian. As the Roman army was deep inside Persian territory, Jovian was forced to make peace on unfavourable terms, in order to lead his troops back to friendly territory. Jovian siliqua, ca 363. ... -1...

His successor Jovian was defeated and made an ignominious peace, by which the districts on the Tigris and Nisibis (total of 5 Roman provinces) were ceded to the Persians, and the Romans promised to interfere no more in Armenia. In the rock-sculptures near the town Bishapur in Persis, the great success is represented; under the hoofs of the king's horse lies the body of an enemy, probably Julian, and a suppliant Roman, the emperor Jovian, asks for peace. Jovian siliqua, ca 363. ... Tigris River in Mosul, Iraq The Tigris (Old Persian: Tigrā-, Pahlavi: Tigr, Syriac: ܕܩܠܬ; Deqlath, Arabic: دجلة; Dijla, Turkish: Dicle, Hebrew: חדקל; ḥiddeqel) is the eastern member of the pair of great rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of Anatolia through Iraq. ... The newly excavated Church of Saint Jacob in Nisibis. ... External links Official website of Fars Governorship Categories: Iran geography stubs | Provinces of Iran ...

Jovian was a Christian, in contrast to his "apostate" predecessor Julian, who had attempted a revival of paganism. He died on February 17, 364 after a reign of 8 months. The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Paganism (from Latin paganus) and Heathenry are catch-all terms which have come to connote a broad set of spiritual/religious beliefs and practices of a natural religion, as opposed to the Abrahamic religions. ... February 17 is the 48th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events February 28 - Valentinian I is elected Roman emperor by the army. ...

References

• This article incorporates text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, a publication in the public domain.