The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of both the civil war in Angola (1975 to 2002) and the South African Border War. The armies of Cuba, Angola and South Africa met at Cuito Cuanavale in 1987, and the battle has been called "Africa's largest land battle since World War II".^[2] With all sides claiming victory, it was a turning point in the Angolan civil war, leading to the departure of Cuban, South African and other foreign troops from Angola and Namibia, and the independence of Namibia which was also linked to their withdrawal. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... Image File history File links Mergefrom. ... Combatants MPLA Republic of Cuba AAF Mozambique[1] UNITA FNLA South Africa Republic of Zaire Commanders José Eduardo dos Santos Jonas Savimbi Casualties Over 500,000 militants[2] and hundreds of thousands of civilians The Angolan Civil War began when Angola won its war for independence in 1975 with the... Combatants Republic of Angola, Republic of Cuba, SWAPO, USSR, East Germany, Republic of Zambia Republic of South Africa, UNITA Scope of operations Operational Area: The South African Border War The South African Border War refers to the conflict that took place from 1966 to 1989 in South-West Africa (now... is the 253rd day of the year (254th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year 1987. ... Year 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar). ... Map of Earth showing lines of latitude (horizontally) and longitude (vertically), Eckert VI projection; large version (pdf, 1. ... The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of the Civil War in Angola, which started in 1975 and ended in 2002. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Angola. ... FAPLA or Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola (Peoples Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola) was originally the armed wing of the Angolan MPLA movement but later became the countrys official armed forces when the MPLA took control of the government. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cuba. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Namibia. ... The South-West Africa Peoples Organisation (SWAPO) was founded, along with a number of other groups, as a liberation organisation: following the first world war, South-West Africa — formerly a German colony — was turned over to South Africa to rule as a mandate for the British. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_South_Africa_1928-1994. ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Cuba. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_South_Africa_1928-1994. ... Combatants MPLA Republic of Cuba AAF Mozambique[1] UNITA FNLA South Africa Republic of Zaire Commanders José Eduardo dos Santos Jonas Savimbi Casualties Over 500,000 militants[2] and hundreds of thousands of civilians The Angolan Civil War began when Angola won its war for independence in 1975 with the... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Also see: 2002 (number). ... Combatants Republic of Angola, Republic of Cuba, SWAPO, USSR, East Germany, Republic of Zambia Republic of South Africa, UNITA Scope of operations Operational Area: The South African Border War The South African Border War refers to the conflict that took place from 1966 to 1989 in South-West Africa (now... The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of the Civil War in Angola, which started in 1975 and ended in 2002. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... The history of Namibia has passed through several distinct stages, and Namibia has really only existed as a modern state since South Africa relinquished control of the country in 1989. ...

Context

Independence from Portugal

Main article: Angolan War of Independence

For 16 years until 1975, three armed groups fought for Angola's independence from Portugal: the Marxist MPLA (with its armed wing FAPLA), led by Agostinho Neto; the conservative FNLA, led by Holden Roberto; and UNITA, led by the charismatic Jonas Savimbi. Each group controlled specific areas of the country: the MPLA controlled the capital, Luanda; UNITA controlled the south of Angola; and the FNLA controlled the north.^[7] The Angolan War of Independence (1961–1989) was a multi-faction struggle for control of Angola. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Portuguese: Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... FAPLA or Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola (Peoples Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola) was originally the armed wing of the Angolan MPLA movement but later became the countrys official armed forces when the MPLA took control of the government. ... António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ... External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... Álvaro Holden Roberto (born 12 January 1923 in São Salvador do Congo) is the leader of the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (August 3, 1934–February 22, 2002) was a rebel leader in Angola who founded the UNITA movement in 1966, and ultimately proved a central figure in 20th century Cold War politics. ... The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimiento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the largest city and capital of Angola. ... A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ...

Soon after the Carnation Revolution in Portugal, Lisbon began letting go of its African colonies and Angola received its independence. The Treaty of Alvor comprised a series of agreements between the three rebel factions and Portugal that paved the way to full sovereignty. Under the terms of the treaty, a transitional government was formed, elections were scheduled for the end of the year, and November 11, 1975 was slated as Angola's independence day. Fighting between the three rebel factions started soon after the transitional government took office. The MPLA gained control of the capital. On 9 August the South African Army (SADF) occupied the Ruacana hydro-electric complex on the border with Namibia; on 14. October South Africa launched Operation Savanah in support of UNITA and FNLA advancing on Luanda and coming within 200km of the city. The FNLA, supported by royalist Zairian units, South Africans and Portuguese mercenaries advanced on Luanda from the east and got as far as Kifangondo. On 7 November Cuba launched Operation Carlota, intervening in favour of the MPLA (see Cuba in Angola). The MPLA managed to hold Luanda and on 11 November Agostinho Neto proclaimed the independence of Angola. The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese, Revolução dos Cravos) was an almost bloodless, leftist, military-led coup détat, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, that effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship to a liberal democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC... For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation). ... is the 315th day of the year (316th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Ruacana is a town in Cunene Province, Angola. ... António Agostinho Neto (September 17, 1922–September 10, Angola (1975–1979), a poet and nationalist leader. ...

Cold War

Main articles: Cold War and Angolan Civil War

The civil war continued more or less unabated until 2002. The Angolan Civil War cost an estimated half a million lives^[8][9] and devastated the country's infrastructure. The tragedy played out against the backdrop of the Cold War struggle between the Soviet Union and the United States. Both superpowers realised the strategic importance of southern Africa, a region rich in natural resources (petroleum, natural gas, gold, diamonds) and ringed by shipping routes along its coast. Both sides tried to influence the outcome of the civil war through proxies. Cuba and the Soviet-led Eastern bloc gave overt military support to the MPLA and Namibian rebels, while the United States (and, to a much lesser extent, France) countered by bolstering UNITA and South Africa with sales of war material. For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... Combatants MPLA Republic of Cuba AAF Mozambique[1] UNITA FNLA South Africa Republic of Zaire Commanders José Eduardo dos Santos Jonas Savimbi Casualties Over 500,000 militants[2] and hundreds of thousands of civilians The Angolan Civil War began when Angola won its war for independence in 1975 with the... Also see: 2002 (number). ... Superpowers redirects here. ... Petro redirects here. ... For other uses, see Natural gas (disambiguation). ... GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... This article is about the mineral. ... A map of the Eastern Bloc 1948-1989. ...

Participants

The MPLA, outgunned by its enemy UNITA, reached out to the Communist regime of Cuba for support. Between January and August of 1975, the MPLA was furnished with a military school, weapons, means of transport, transmitters, uniforms and combat equipment.^[3] By the end of the year, Cuban troops had arrived on Angolan soil to back up FAPLA after the Battle of Quifadongo.^{[citation needed]} By March of 1976, Cuba had sent around 36,000 troops to the region, mainly to provide logistical support to FAPLA officers. Apart from the Cuban troops and equipment, several members of the Eastern Bloc, under Soviet direction, provided support to the MPLA, mostly in the form of specialized technical staff (including pilots) and military hardware. Soviet generals fulfilled leadership roles.^{[citation needed]} The MPLA flag The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimiento Popular de Libertação de Angola) is an Angolan political party that has ruled the country since independence in 1975. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... Year 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... A map of the Eastern Bloc 1948-1989. ... Soviet redirects here. ...

UNITA received heavy backing from the United States and the apartheid government in South Africa. While the U.S. helped UNITA with money and weaponry, South Africa sent around 5,000 troops in aid. South Africa's interests in Angola lay in preventing a MPLA takeover. Angola bordered on the South African protectorate Namibia (at the time called South West Africa), which was then under threat from SWAPO, a Communist-backed guerrilla force that was fighting for Namibian independence from bases in Angola. South Africa aimed to clear out MPLA and SWAPO forces from southern Angola and establish a buffer zone to prevent further incursions into South West Africa. The FNLA was propped up by the dictator of Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko (Holden Roberto's brother-in-law), who dispatched around 2,000 troops to Angola. However, by the time of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale the FNLA had ceased to matter. A UNITA sticker The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, commonly known by the acronymn, UNITA, derived from its Portuguese name União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, is an Angolan political faction and a former rebel force. ... A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ... South-West Africa is the former name (1884-1990) of Namibia under German (as German South-West Africa, Deutsch Süd-West Afrika) and (from 1915) South African administration when it was conqured from the Germans during World War I. Following the war, the Treaty of Versailles declared the territory... The South-West Africa Peoples Organisation (SWAPO) was founded, along with a number of other groups, as a liberation organisation: following the first world war, South-West Africa — formerly a German colony — was turned over to South Africa to rule as a mandate for the British. ... External links Party website Categories: Politics stubs | Angolan political parties ... Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga (October 14, 1930 – September 7, 1997), known commonly as Mobutu, or Mobutu Sese Seko, born Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, was the President of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) for 32 years (1965–1997), in which he rose to power...

Battle

Image File history File links Red_pog. ... Image File history File links Red_pog. ... Image File history File links Red_pog. ... Image File history File links Red_pog. ... Image File history File links Red_pog. ... Image File history File links Red_pog. ... Image File history File links Red_pog. ...

FAPLA advance on Mavinga

In 1987 as part of the MPLA's struggle for dominion over Angola, the group launched a campaign to rout UNITA forces from their stronghold cities of Mavinga, a former Portuguese military base and Jamba in the southeast of the country just above the Caprivi Strip.^[10] Under the leadership of Soviet generals, it was decided to commence the attack from Cuito Cuanavale. In August the 21st, 25th (both light infantry), 47th (armoured) and the 59th (mechanized) brigades (some sources^[who?] also include the 16th brigade) of FAPLA, under Soviet command, departed from the city Cuito Cuanavale in the Cuando Cubango province of south-east Angola. They received air support from the large airbase at Menongue, including MiG 23s deployed in a ground-attack role.^[11] Location: Caprivi, Namibia Area: 19,532km (7,541 mi ) Population: 79,852 (2001), 90,422 (1991) Capital: Katima Mulilo Time Zone: South African Standard Time: UTC+1 Caprivi, sometimes called the Caprivi Strip or Caprivi Region and formally known as Itenge, is a narrow protrusion of Namibia eastwards about 450km... Soviet redirects here. ... The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of the Civil War in Angola, which started in 1975 and ended in 2002. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Provinces of Angola ... Menongue is a town in mid-south-east Angola. ... The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 (Russian: ; NATO reporting name: Flogger) is a swing-wing fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich bureau in the Soviet Union. ...

South African reaction

The South African government's strategic concern was to ensure continued UNITA control over regions bordering Namibia, so as to prevent the MPLA-aligned SWAPO guerrillas from gaining a springboard in southern Angola from which to launch attacks into Namibia. In October of 1987 the South African government responded to the FAPLA/Soviet offensive by launching a series of military operations in conjunction with UNITA forces, beginning with Operation Modular. The South-West Africa Peoples Organisation (SWAPO) was founded, along with a number of other groups, as a liberation organisation: following the first world war, South-West Africa — formerly a German colony — was turned over to South Africa to rule as a mandate for the British. ... This article is about the year 1987. ... Operation Modular was a military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF) during the South African Border War. ...

Prelude

South African and UNITA forces, having gained the upper-hand with Operation Modular, then launched Operation Hooper. After a string of defeats, FAPLA forces retreated to the strategically important town of Cuito Cuanavale, a former NATO air base located at 15.1667° S 19.1667° E. If Cuito Cuanavale were lost by FAPLA, the next closest comparable outpost would be Menongue, 300km from Mavinga and 500km from UNITA's headquarters at Jamba.^[12] Operation Hooper was a military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF) during the South African Border War. ... The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of the Civil War in Angola, which started in 1975 and ended in 2002. ... This article is about the military alliance. ... Menongue is a town in mid-south-east Angola. ...

The remnants of three FAPLA brigades were cut off on the east of the Cuito River, across from the town itself and, with no functioning armour or artillery remaining, faced annihilation.^[13] The MPLA, fearing defeat, requested more help from Cuba. Fidel Castro responded by sending - in what was called "Maniobra XXXI Aniversario de las FAR" - materiel and 15,000 elite troops to the MPLA's rescue.^[14] (This brought the total number of Cuban troops in all of Angola up to 50,000.^[15] The first Cuban reinforcements arrived by helicopter in Cuito Cuanavale on December 5 and repaired damaged equipment. The South African advance was halted 22 km east of Cuito Cuanavale at the Tumpo river (15.18° S 18.957° E) by FAPLA forces, who set up positions fortified by thick minefields. Though stalled, the South Africans secured the tactically important Chambinga Heights. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born on August 13, 1926) is the current President of Cuba but on indefinite medical hiatus. ... Material (from the French matérial for equipment or hardware, related to the word material) is a term used in English to refer to the equipment and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management. ... is the 339th day of the year (340th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A landmine is a type of mine which is placed onto or into the ground and explodes when triggered by a vehicle or person. ...

Final phase

Major operations continued through March 23, 1988 including several massive ground assaults^[16] with infantry (primarily UNITA), armoured cars and tanks on FAPLA positions. After this, the SADF withdrew the bulk of their forces.^[17][18] They left the artillery, due to the difficulty in transporting it during the rainy season^[19][20]. The South Africans continued shelling (using their long-range G-5 artillery^[21]) both the air strip and the city, from the high grounds of the Chambinga Heights, for months. Cuban and FAPLA forces retained the city. South African and UNITA forces claimed to have inflicted enormous casualties on Cuban and FAPLA forces, and to have accomplished their objective of repulsing the offensive against UNITA havens in southeast Angola. Cuban and FAPLA forces, however, count the failure of the South Africans to capture the city and the resilience of their troops under bombardment as a triumph. Regardless of which side was the victor, the battle marked a major turning point in the course of events in southern Africa. The G5 is a South African towed howitzer produced by Denel. ...

(On March 8, General Cintras Frías began opening a second front near Calueque, with 40,000 Cuban troops and a larger number of Angolan forces.^[22][23])

Following a series of peace discussions throughout 1988 mediated by Chester Crocker, a peace accord was finally signed by the parties on December 22, 1988 in New York whereby South Africa and Cuba agreed to the withdrawal of their troops from Angola, and a timetable was set for Namibian independence from South Africa. For statistical mediation, see Mediation (Statistics). ... Chester A. Crocker The policy of constructive engagement, by means of which the administration of former president Ronald Reagan sought to influence events in South Africa with the carrot of closer ties with the white-minority government in Pretoria rather than with the stick of economic sanctions, was the brainchild... The New York Accords granted independence to Namibia and ended the direct involvement of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War. ... is the 356th day of the year (357th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar). ... This article is about the state. ... The history of Namibia has passed through several distinct stages, and Namibia has really only existed as a modern state since South Africa relinquished control of the country in 1989. ...

Aftermath

The SADF side claimed they inflicted severe casualties on the Cubans forcing them to the negotiation table and the Cubans claiming they defeated the SADF to do the same.^[24] In fact much of the aftermath has been mired in propaganda. In Black Africa - particularly in southern Africa - the battle has attained legendary status. To that part of the world it is considered the debacle of apartheid: a rout of the South African armed forces that altered the balance of power in the region and heralded the demise of racist rule in South Africa. Thus, the battle is often referred to as the African Stalingrad of apartheid: the decisive event that defeated Pretoria's objective of establishing regional hegemony - a strategy which was vital to defending and preserving apartheid - and directly led to the independence of Namibia and accelerated the dismantling of apartheid. In this point of view Cuba's contribution was crucial as it provided the essential reinforcements, material and planning. 1967 Chinese propaganda poster from the Cultural Revolution. ... Belligerents Germany Romania Italy Hungary Soviet Union Commanders Adolf Hitler Friedrich Paulus # Erich von Manstein Wolfram von Richthofen Petre Dumitrescu Constantin Constantinescu Italo Gariboldi Gusztáv Vitéz Jány Josef Stalin Vasiliy Chuikov Aleksandr Vasilyevskiy Georgiy Zhukov Semyon Timoshenko Konstantin Rokossovskiy Rodion Malinovskiy Andrei Yeremenko Strength Army Group B...

The South African Defense Minister claimed that the taking of Cuito Cuanavale had never been intended.^[25] A military analyst associated with the "authoritative"^[26] International Institute of Strategic Studies in London pointed out that the use by UNITA of the FIM-92 Stinger anti-aircraft system reduced the MIGs to using high altitudes techniques ineffective for close air support.^[27] The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of the Civil War in Angola, which started in 1975 and ended in 2002. ... The FIM-92 Stinger is a personal portable infrared homing surface-to-air missile developed in the United States and used by all the U.S. armed services, with whom it entered service in 1981. ... An Apache attack helicopter provides close air support to United States Army soldiers patrolling the Tigris River southeast of Baghdad, Iraq during the Iraq War. ...

The SADF claims a large number of government casualties of 4,000, 100 armored vehicles, 9 aircraft as well as a heavy loss of armour (94 tanks) due to their use of obsolete T-55 tanks and poorly trained crews against more modern SADF anti-tank weaponry and targeting devices.^[28]

The South African and American view is expressed by John Turner who claims that following their losses, the Cubans were convinced that further military confrontation with the SADF would not succeed.^[29]

The Cuban claim of victory over South African forces was seen as a major development in the African anti-colonial struggle.^{[citation needed]}

Subsequent comments made by a Soviet adviser to the Cubans in Angola suggest a stalemate: "The people's armed forces for the liberation of Angola have not been able either, even with the help of the Cubans, to decisively defeat the enemy and drive him out of the territory or the country. The result, frankly speaking, was an impasse."^{[30][citation needed]}

Nelson Mandela supported the Cuban version of its vital role in a July 26, 1991 speech delivered in Havana: "The Cuban people hold a special place in the hearts of the people of Africa. The Cuban internationalists have made a contribution to African independence, freedom and justice unparalleled for its principled and selfless character. We in Africa are used to being victims of countries wanting to carve up our territory or subvert our sovereignty. It is unparalleled in African history to have another people rise to the defence of one of us. The defeat of the apartheid army was an inspiration to the struggling people in South Africa. Without the defeat of Cuito Cuanavale our organizations would not have been unbanned. The defeat of the racist army at Cuito Cuanavale has made it possible for me to be here today. Cuito Cuanavale was a milestone in the history of the struggle for southern African liberation."^[31] For other people named Mandela, or other uses, see Mandela. ...

See also

• List of operations of the South African Border War
• Cuba in Angola

This List of operations of the South African Border War details the military operations conducted by the South African Defence Force during the South African Border War: Operation Savannah (1975) Operation Bruilof (1978) Operation Seiljag (1978) Operation Reindeer (1978) Operation Protea (1981) Operation Daisy (1981) Operation Askari (1983) Operation Wallpaper...

References

2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 131st day of the year (132nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 127th day of the year (128th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 135th day of the year (136th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ... The South African National Defence Force (SANDF) is the name of the armed forces of South Africa. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 135th day of the year (136th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Literature

• Crocker, Chester A (1992). High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighborhood. W.W. Norton. ISBN 1868420132. 

• Kahn, Owen Ellison (1991). Disengagement from Southwest Africa: The Prospects for Peace in Angola and Namibia. ISBN 0887383610. Retrieved on 2008-05-07. 

• George, Edward (2005). The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965-1991 From Che Guevara to Cuito Cuanavale. Routledge. ISBN 0415350158. 

• Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976. The University of North Carolina Press; New edition. ISBN 0807826472. 

• Gleijeses, Piero (2006). "Moscow's Proxy? Cuba and Africa 1975–1988", Journal of Cold War Studies 8.4. President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 98-146. 

• Goulding, Marrack (2003). Peacemonger. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 

• Heitman, Helmoed-Römer (1990). War in Angola: The Final South African Phase. ISBN 0620143703. 

• Holt, C. (2005). At Thy Call we did not falter. Zebra Press. ISBN 1770071172. 

• Kissinger, Henry (1999). Years of Renewal. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684855712. 

• Nortje, P. 32 Battalion, Struik, 2004. ISBN 1-86872-914-1

• Ricardo Luis, Roger (1989). Prepárense a vivir: Crónicas de Cuito Cuanavale. Havana: Editora Politica. 

• Stockwell, John (1978). In Search of Enemies: A CIA Story. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Inc.. ISBN 0735100128. 

• Steenkamp, Willem (1989). South Africa's Border War, 1966–1989. Gibraltar: Ashanti Publishing. ISBN 0620139676. 

• Stiff, Peter (1999). The Silent War: South African Recce Operations 1969–1994. Alberton, South Africa: Galago. ISBN 0620243007. 

• Turner, John W.. Continent Ablaze; The Insurgency Wars in Africa, 1960 to the Present, 1998, ISBN 1-85409-128-X. 

Chester A. Crocker The policy of constructive engagement, by means of which the administration of former president Ronald Reagan sought to influence events in South Africa with the carrot of closer ties with the white-minority government in Pretoria rather than with the stick of economic sanctions, was the brainchild... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 127th day of the year (128th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German-born American politician, and 1973 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. ...

External links

• Cuito Cuanavale Revisited
• The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
• Angola National Security
• Angola and Southwest Africa: A Forgotten War (1975-89.
• Aid to UNITA - Operations MODULAR, HOOPER and PACKER
• Operations Modular and Hooper 1987-88
• 7th South African Infantry Battalion and Cuito Cuanavale
• Cuban Tanks at Cuito Cuanavale
• Cuban MiG-23 Fighters at Cuito Cuanavale (Spanish)
• South African Tanks at Cuito Cuanavale
• U.S. Marine Corps Paper: Fighting Columns in Small Wars (Partially devoted to SADF Angolan Operations during this time period)
• South African Bush War Veterans Site