It has been suggested that Navarino Massacre be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

The naval Battle of Navarino was fought on 20 October 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–29) in Navarino Bay, on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. A combined Ottoman and Egyptian armada was destroyed by a combined British, French and Russian naval force, at the port of Navarino. It is notable for being the last major naval battle in history to be fought entirely with sailing ships. The Allied ships were better armed than their Egyptian and Ottoman opponents and their crews were better trained, contributing to a complete victory. Image File history File links Mergefrom. ... Navarino Massacre[1] was one of the series of massacres that occurred following the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, which had resulted in the extermination of the Turkish civilian population inhabiting the region over hundreds of years. ... Combatants Greek revolutionaries United Kingdom France Russian Empire  Ottoman Empire Egyptian Khedivate Commanders Theodoros Kolokotronis Alexander Ypsilanti Georgios Karaiskakis Omer Vryonis Mahmud Dramali Pasha ReÅŸid Mehmed Pasha Ibrahim Pasha. ... The Russo–Turkish War of 1828–1829 was sparked by the Greeks struggle for independence. ... Battle of Navarino: The Naval Battle of Navarino (1827). ... is the 293rd day of the year (294th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1827 (MDCCCXXVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... This article is about the Greek geographical feature and town. ... // Catherine II died in 1796, and her son Paul (r. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... The reign of Mehemet Ali and his successors over Egypt was a period of rapid reform and modernization that led to Egypt becoming one of the most developed states outside of Europe. ... Motto Liberty, Order, Justice Anthem Capital (and largest city) Tunis Official languages Arabic Demonym Tunisian Government Republic  -  President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali  -  Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi Independence  -  from France March 20, 1956  Area  -  Total 163,610 km² (92nd) 63,170 sq mi   -  Water (%) 5. ... Admiral Edward Codrington Sir Edward Codrington (1770-1851) was a British admiral, hero of the Battle of Trafalgar and the Battle of Navarino. ... Henri de Rigny was the commander of the French squadron at the Battle of Navarino in the Greek War of Independence. ... Login Petrovich Geiden (25 August 1777 — 5 October 1850) was a Dutch-born Russian admiral who commanded the Imperial Russian Navy in the Battle of Navarino (1827). ... Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt Ibrahim Pasha (Arabic: إبراهيم باشا) ‎ (1789 – November 10, 1848), a 19th century general of Egypt. ... The Russo–Turkish War of 1828–1829 was sparked by the Greeks struggle for independence. ... Siege of Varna (July — September 29, 1828) was a war episode during the Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Battle of Akhalzic may refer to one of the following: A battle under the walls of Akhaltsikhe during the Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829 on August 9 (August 27 O.S., 1828) between 9,000 Russians under Field-Marshal Paskevich and 30,000 Turks under Kios-Mahomet-Pasha. ... is the 293rd day of the year (294th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1827 (MDCCCXXVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Combatants Greek revolutionaries United Kingdom France Russian Empire  Ottoman Empire Egyptian Khedivate Commanders Theodoros Kolokotronis Alexander Ypsilanti Georgios Karaiskakis Omer Vryonis Mahmud Dramali Pasha ReÅŸid Mehmed Pasha Ibrahim Pasha. ... This article is about the Greek geographical feature and town. ... Greece and the Peloponnese The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος Peloponnesos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large peninsula in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. ... The Ionian Sea. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... The multinational Combined Task Force One Five Zero (CTF-150) The British Grand Fleet, the supreme naval force of World War I A rare occurrence of a 5-country multinational fleet, during Operation Enduring Freedom in the Oman Sea. ... This article is about the Greek geographical feature and town. ... Traditional wooden cutter beating. ...

Background

The context of the Battle of Navarino was the Greek War of Independence. This had begun in 1821 as an uprising by Greek nationalists against the Ottoman Empire, which had ruled Greece for over three centuries. Combatants Greek revolutionaries United Kingdom France Russian Empire  Ottoman Empire Egyptian Khedivate Commanders Theodoros Kolokotronis Alexander Ypsilanti Georgios Karaiskakis Omer Vryonis Mahmud Dramali Pasha ReÅŸid Mehmed Pasha Ibrahim Pasha. ... Nationalism is an ideology that creates and sustains a nation as a concept of a common identity for groups of humans. ... Ottoman redirects here. ...

By 1827, the Greek rebellion seemed close to failure. In 1825, Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II (ruled 1808-39) (Fig.7) had succeeded in breaking the stalemate that the war had reached. He persuaded his powerful vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt, wali (lord) of Egypt (ruled 1805-49), to deploy his Western-trained and equipped army and navy against the Greeks. In return, he promised to grant the Peloponnese as a hereditary fief to Ali's son, Ibrahim. In February 1825, Ibrahim led an expeditionary force of 10,000 into the rebel heartland, the Peloponnese, and soon overran its western part. Ibrahim's forces then moved onto the Greek mainland, capturing the pivotal strongholds of the Acropolis of Athens and, in April 1826, despite a heroic Greek defence, Messolonghi (Navpaktos, Aetolia), which controlled the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth.^[1]In response to Greek guerilla attacks on his forces in the Peloponnese, Ibrahim launched a campaign of ethnic cleansing by means of deportations of civilians to slavery in Egypt and a scorched earth policy which threatened the population with starvation. He also brought in Arab settlers, aiming ultimately to replace the indigenous population. Sultan (Arabic: سلطان) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. ... The stylized signature of Mahmud II was written in an expressive calligraphy. ... Stalemate is a situation in chess where the player whose turn it is to move has no legal moves but is not in check. ... Look up vassal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the viceroy of Egypt. ... Wali (Arabic ولي, plural Awliya أولياء, Persian/Turkish pronunciation Vali), is an Arabic word, meaning protector or guardian (most literally etymologically near one), also adopted in various other Islamic cultures. ... Under the system of feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud or fee, consisted of heritable lands or revenue-producing property granted by a liege lord in return for a vassal knights service (usually fealty, military service, and security). ... Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt Ibrahim Pasha (Arabic: إبراهيم باشا) ‎ (1789 – November 10, 1848), a 19th century general of Egypt. ... The Acropolis of Athens is the best known acropolis (high city, The Sacred Rock) in the world. ... Messolonghi is a town of about 12,000 people (as of 1991 census) in central Greece. ... The ancient Region of Aetolia, Greece Aetolia is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania. ... The Gulf of Corinth or the Corinthian Gulf is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea separating the Peloponnese from western mainland Greece. ... Ethnic cleansing refers to various policies or practices aimed at the displacement of an ethnic group from a particular territory in order to create a supposedly ethnically pure society. ... For the computer game, see Scorched Earth (computer game). ...

The Greeks remained defiant, appointing able philhellenic British and French veteran officers to command their forces^[2], and in May 1827 declaring an independent Greek State (today known as the First Hellenic Republic). But the Republic's land and sea forces were far inferior to those of the Ottomans and Egyptians^[3] and it was virtually bankrupt. Many of the key fortresses on what little territory it controlled were in Ottoman hands. It seemed only a matter of time before the Greeks were forced to capitulate. Flag Capital Nafplion Language(s) Greek Religion Greek Orthodox Government Republic Governor  - 1828-1831 Ioannis Kapodistrias  - 1831-1832 Augustinos Kapodistrias  - 1832-1833 Governmental Commission History  - Start of Greek Revolution March, 1821  - Established January 1, 1822  - Treaty of Constantinople May 7, 1832  - Disestablished June 18, 1832  - London Protocol August 30, 1832...

At this critical juncture, the Greek cause was rescued by the decision of three European great powers, Great Britain, France and Russia, to intervene jointly in the conflict. In the context of international relations and diplomacy, power (sometimes clarified as international power, national power, or state power) is the ability of one state to influence or control other states. ...

Motives of the Great Powers

Fig.1: George Canning, prime minister of Great Britain when the Treaty of London was signed

The only great power that had given unqualified support to the Greek rebellion from its inception was Russia. As the sole Orthodox Christian great power, Russia had long seen herself as the protector (and potential liberator) of the Balkan subjects of the Ottoman empire, the Romanians, Bulgarians, Serbs and Greeks, who were predominantly of the Orthodox faith.^[4] This emotional bond dovetailed neatly with Russia's geostrategic interests. As Russia expanded southwards into the Black Sea and Caucasus regions, it did so at the expense of the Ottoman empire, fighting a series of seven wars against the latter in the 17th and 18th centuries (the Russo-Turkish Wars). Supporting a breakaway Greek state, which would be a natural ally of Russia, was an obvious way to advance Russian influence in south-east Europe. In addition, wealthy Greek phanariote aristocratic clans, which largely controlled Russia's Black Sea trade, had substantial political and commercial influence in Russia. George Canning This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... George Canning This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... George Canning (11 April 1770 – 8 August 1827) was a British statesman and politician who served as Foreign Secretary and, briefly, Prime Minister. ... The term Orthodox Christian refers to two Christian traditions: Oriental Orthodoxy, which separated from the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church in the 5th century; Eastern Orthodoxy, which the Roman Catholic church separated from in 1054 was the church that was started by the apostles. ... ... Geostrategy is a subfield of geopolitics. ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Caucasus Mountains. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... Phanariotes (from Phanar, the chief Greek quarter at Istambul, where the oecumenical patriarchate is situated) were those members of families resident in the Phanar quarter who between the years 1711 and 1821 were appointed voivodes of the Danubian principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia). ...

The difficulty facing Russian military planners was that direct assistance to the Greeks could only be provided by means of a naval expeditionary force, which would have to sail from St Petersburg all the way round Europe and through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. (The Black Sea was cut off by Ottoman control of the Bosporus). This was not practicable without British consent, because of Britain's naval supremacy. The British government was strongly opposed to this kind of unilateral action by the Russians against the Ottomans (see below). The other option was indirect assistance in the form of a land invasion of the Balkan part of the Ottoman Empire from Russian territory, to force the Sublime Porte (or simply, Porte, the Ottoman government) to accept Greek independence. This course was actively considered and strongly supported by nationalists. But until Navarino in late 1827, it was regarded as too costly and risky by some senior political and military echelons. Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and... The Strait of Gibraltar as seen from space (on the left: Spain) A view across the Strait of Gibraltar taken from the hills over Tarifa, Spain The Strait of Gibraltar (Arabic: مضيق جبل طارق, Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar) is the strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain... Composite satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea. ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... I LOVE BORAT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Two bridges cross the Bosporus. ... Command of the sea is a technical term of naval warfare, which indicates a definite strategical condition. ... Synonym of the government of the Ottoman Empire. ...

The war party in St. Petersburg became much stronger after the Egyptian invasion of the Peloponnese and the start of Ibrahim Pasha's ethnic cleansing campaign. But the Ottoman government bought off immediate Russian intervention by signing the Convention of Akkerman in October 1826, conceding long-standing Russian demands for (genuine) Rumanian and Serb autonomy. The Akkerman Convention was a treaty signed on October 7, 1826 between the Russian and the Ottoman Empires in the Budjak citadel of Akkerman (present-day Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine). ...

In Britain and France, the ruling circles were far less enthusiastic about the Greek cause than in Russia. The two governments saw the Greek rebellion as an affront to the Conservative Order, the fundamental post-Napoleonic principle of international relations enshrined by the Congress of Vienna: that the legitimate monarchies of Europe, and their territorial borders, should be inviolable (although it was disputed whether this applied to a non-Christian "Asiatic" power as Turkey). Even more importantly, both governments greatly feared Russian ambitions in the Balkans and the Middle East and were concerned that a successful Greek secession could trigger a series of revolts that could lead to the disintegration of the Ottoman empire and Russian hegemony in the Levant (eastern Mediterranean). The Conservative Order is a term applied to European political history after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box:      International relations (IR), a branch of political science, is the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). ... The Congress of Vienna was a conference between ambassadors from the major powers in Europe that was chaired by the Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich and held in Vienna, Austria, from late September, 1814, to June 9, 1815. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Hegemony (pronounced or ) (Greek: ) is the dominance of one group over other groups, with or without the threat of force, to the extent that, for instance, the dominant party can dictate the terms of trade to its advantage; more broadly, cultural perspectives become skewed to favor the dominant group. ... The Levant The Levant (IPA: ) is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ...

However, both governments were under pressure from home public opinion to lend assistance the Greeks. In the eyes of the vast majority of Britons and Frenchmen, the Greeks were gallant Christian freedom-fighters struggling against an oppressive and corrupt Islamic tyranny. In Britain the philhellenes, a group of wealthy and well-connected supporters of the Greek cause that included Romantic poet Lord Byron, raised large sums of money for the Greeks and agitated in the press. In France, a deeply unpopular Bourbon monarchy, restored to power by the Allies after the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, was faced by an upsurge of sympathy for the Greek cause. From 1826, the atrocities committed by Ibrahim Pasha's army in the Peloponnese caused a furore in Europe. Public Opinion is a book on media and democracy by Walter Lippmann. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ( â–¶ (help· info)), the submission to God) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions and the worlds second-largest religion. ... Philhellenism (the love of Greek culture) was the intellectual fashion at the turn of the 19th century that led Europeans like Lord Byron to lend their support for the Greek movement towards independence from the Ottoman Empire. ... The poet George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron is often referred to simply as Byron. ... Print media includes newspapers, magazines, and the like. ... Also see:  Early Modern France The House of Bourbon is an important European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. ... For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ...

Initially, British diplomacy aimed at stalling Russian military intervention in support of the Greeks, in order to give the Ottomans time to defeat the rebellion, which the British confidently expected them to do (see the Duke of Wellington 's diplomacy at the Congress of Verona, 1822). But as the conflict persisted year after year, and as the Russians grew ever more impatient, together with outrage at Egyptian atrocities in the Peloponnese, the British position changed towards a compromise: Greek autonomy under Ottoman suzerainty. The formula was enough to satisfy the Russians, while for the British it had the attraction of preserving Ottoman territorial integrity. This was especially the policy of British politician George Canning, who was more sympathetic to the Greek cause than Wellington, and who was appointed prime minister in April 1827 (Fig.1). Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (c. ... The Congress of Verona met at Verona on October 20, 1822 as the last of the series of international conferences or congresses that opened with the Congress of Vienna in 1815. ... Look up autonomy, autonomous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Suzerainty refers to a situation in which a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which allows the tributary some limited domestic autonomy but controls its foreign affairs. ... George Canning (11 April 1770 – 8 August 1827) was a British statesman and politician who served as Foreign Secretary and, briefly, Prime Minister. ... A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. ...

Treaty of London

Fig.2: Adm. Sir Edward Codrington, Allied commander-in-chief at the Battle of Navarino

The three Powers signed the Treaty of London on 6 July 1827. Citing the disruption of trade in the Levant caused by the war as the justification for allied intervention, the treaty called for an immediate armistice between the belligerents, in effect demanding a cessation of Ottoman military operations in Greece- just when the Ottomans had victory in their grasp. It also offered Allied mediation in the negotiations on a final settlement that were to follow the armistice.^[5] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 469 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (505 × 645 pixel, file size: 104 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Faithful reproductions of two-dimensional original works cannot attract copyright in the U.S. according to the rule in Bridgeman Art Library v. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 469 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (505 × 645 pixel, file size: 104 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Faithful reproductions of two-dimensional original works cannot attract copyright in the U.S. according to the rule in Bridgeman Art Library v. ... Admiral Edward Codrington Sir Edward Codrington (1770-1851) was a British admiral, hero of the Battle of Trafalgar and the Battle of Navarino. ... This Treaty of London (among many others) was signed by the United Kingdom, France, and Russia on July 6, 1827. ... A white flag is traditionally used to represent a truce. ...

The treaty called on the Porte to grant the Greeks autonomy. The treaty envisaged Greece remaining under Ottoman suzerainty, and paying an annual tribute to the Sultan^[6] . This would place Greece in the same constitutional position as the Rumanian principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia). Howevever, the treaty provided for the amount of tribute to be agreed by both sides and fixed permanently. This was to avoid the situation of the Principalities, where the tribute was variable at the behest of the Porte, and had become a crushing burden which had kept those countries in poverty for two centuries. A tribute (from Latin tribulum, contribution) is wealth one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. ... Sultan (Arabic: سلطان) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow. ... For other uses of Moldavia or Moldova, see Moldova (disambiguation). ...

A secret clause in the agreement provided that if the Porte failed to accept the armistice within a month, each signatory Power would despatch a consul to Nafplion, the capital of the Hellenic Republic, thereby granting de facto recognition to the rebel government, something no Power had done hitherto.^[7] For the uses of Consul as Chief Magistrate of a (city) state, see Consul. ... Nafplion (Ναύπλιο; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a town on the Peloponnese in Greece. ... In international law de facto recognition of a country is unofficial recognition of another country. ...

The same clause authorised the signatories in concert to instruct their naval commanders in the Mediterranean to "take all measures that circumstances may suggest" (i.e. including military action) to enforce the Allied demands, if the Ottomans failed to comply within the specified time limit. However, the clause added that Allied commanders should not take sides in the conflict.^[8]

The treaty was thus a contradictory document. It called for a negotiated settlement, but predetermined what the end result of those negotiations should be. It offered mediation, but threatened the use of force. It authorised force to be used, but forbade joining in the hostilities. Above all, although it was couched in neutral language, in reality it favoured the Greek position.

On 20 August, the British naval commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Codrington (1770-1851) (Fig.2), veteran of 44 years at sea and hero of the Battle of Trafalgar, received his government's instructions regarding enforcement of the treaty. He was to enforce an armistice and to interdict the flow of reinforcements and supplies from Asia Minor and Egypt to Ottoman forces in Greece. He was to use force only as a last resort.^[9] Admiral Edward Codrington Sir Edward Codrington (1770-1851) was a British admiral, hero of the Battle of Trafalgar and the Battle of Navarino. ... Combatants United Kingdom First French Empire Kingdom of Spain Commanders Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson † Pierre Charles Silvestre de Villeneuve Strength 27 ships of the line and 6 others. ...

On 29 August 1827, the Porte formally rejected the Treaty of London's stipulations, triggering de facto recognition of the Hellenic Republic by the Allied powers. On 2 September, the Greek provisional government accepted the armistice. This freed Codrington to concentrate on coercing the Ottoman side.

Prelude

Fig.3: Map of Navarino bay. The diagram of the order of battle contains inaccuracies

Fig.4: Satellite picture of the Peloponnese. Navarino bay is visible below the legend "Messinia". Click on picture to enlarge

Navarino bay is a large natural harbour on the west coast of Messenia (SW Peloponnese) (Figs.4, 5). It is approximately 5km long (between the headlands) and 3km wide. The bay is sheltered from the open sea by a long, narrow islet (Sphacteria). This islet leaves two entrances to the bay. The northern one is very narrow and shallow, 100 m wide and just 1m deep in places ^[10], impassable to large boats. The southern one is much wider, 1500m, with an effective passage of 1000m width due to rocks. The southern entrance was at that time guarded by an Ottoman-held fort, at Navarino (Pylos). During the Greek insurgency, the bay was used by the Ottoman navy as its main operational base in the Peloponnese. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 581 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1536 × 1586 pixel, file size: 66 KB, MIME type: image/png) Other versions Originally from fr. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 581 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1536 × 1586 pixel, file size: 66 KB, MIME type: image/png) Other versions Originally from fr. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 657 × 600 pixels Full resolution (800 × 730 pixel, file size: 164 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Battle of Navarino Metadata This... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 657 × 600 pixels Full resolution (800 × 730 pixel, file size: 164 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Battle of Navarino Metadata This... Greece and the Peloponnese The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος Peloponnesos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large peninsula in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. ... A natural harbor is a landform where a body of water forms a harbor. ... Messenia (Greek: , in Modern Greek Messinia; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a prefecture in the Peloponnese, a region of Greece. ... Sphacteria is a small island at the entrance to the bay of Pylos in the Peloponnese, Greece. ... This article is about the Greek geographical feature and town. ...

The main Ottoman-Egyptian fleet, which had been warned by the British and French to stay away from Greece, left Alexandria on 5 August 1827 and joined other Ottoman/Egyptian units at Navarino on 8 September. In response, Codrington arrived with his squadron off Navarino on 12 September. In talks with Ibrahim Pasha and the Ottoman admiral, he extracted what he believed were verbal promises that they would cease offensive operations by land and sea.^[11] Year 1827 (MDCCCXXVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

But the Ottomans ignored these alleged undertakings. On at least two occasions, squadrons of the Ottoman fleet sailed out of Navarino bay to support Ottoman military operations elsewhere in the Peloponnese. Codrington, operating from nearby Zante (Zakynthos) island (one of the Ionian islands, at that time under British control^[12]), intercepted them and was obliged to fire repeated warning cannonades to induce them to turn back.^[13] In the meantime, Ibrahim resumed his brutal scorched earth policy on land. The fires of burning villages and fields were clearly visible from Allied ships standing offshore. A British landing party reported that the population of Messenia was close to mass starvation.^[14] On 13 October Codrington was joined off Navarino by his allied support, a French squadron under H. de Rigny and a Russian squadron under L. Heyden, both of whom, being junior admirals, agreed to serve under Codrington's command. Zakýnthos (Ζάκυνθος, also known as Zante), the third largest of the Ionian Islands, covers an area of 410 square kilometers and its coastline is roughly 123 kilometers in length. ... The Ionian Islands (Modern Greek: Ionioi Nisoi, Ιόνιοι Νήσοι; Ancient Greek: Ionioi Nesoi, Ιόνιοι Νήσοι) are a group of islands in Greece. ... Henri de Rigny was the commander of the French squadron at the Battle of Navarino in the Greek War of Independence. ... Login Petrovich Geiden or Heyden was a Dutch admiral in Russian service. ...

On 18 October, after futile attempts to contact Ibrahim Pasha, Codrington, in conference with his Allied colleagues, took the fateful decision to enter Navarino bay and anchor his ships face-to-face with the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet. It was decided that with winter approaching, it was impracticable to maintain an effective blockade of Navarino and that in any event, the population of the Peloponnese had to be safeguarded.^[15]. Although this was highly provocative act, Codrington claimed that there was no intention to engage in battle, but only to make a show of force to induce the Ottomans to respect the armistice and to desist from atrocities against the civilian population.^[16]The move would effectively immobilise the Ottoman fleet and place enormous pressure on Ibrahim Pasha to comply with Allied instructions.

Relative strength of the two Fleets

At this point, 22 Allied warships^[17] with a total of 1258 guns (cannon) faced 78 Ottoman vessels^[18] with 2180 guns.^[19] But the Ottoman superiority in numbers masked a decisive inferiority in firepower and crew quality. For other uses, see Cannon (disambiguation). ...

The Allies had a crushing superiority in frontline combat vessels: ten battleships to the Ottomans' three. This was crucial, as James states that experience in the Napoleonic Wars had shown that even frigates were ineffectual against battleships.^[20]In addition, the Allied ships in general had guns of larger calibre, and better-trained gunners. This meant that the Allied crews could fire more devastating, more frequent and more accurate broadsides. This article is about a battleship as a type of warship. ... Sailing frigates were 4th, 5th, or 6th-rated ships in the rating system of the Royal Navy. ... The word caliber (American English) or calibre (British English) comes from the Italian calibro, itself from the Arabic quâlib, meaning mould. ...

The great majority of the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet were small boats - 58 corvettes and brigs - which were helpless against the Allied heavyweights. The Ottomans had a number of double-decked frigates which were heavily armed with up to 64 guns each and could have partly compensated for the deficit in battleships. But their smaller gun-calibre negated their numerical advantage in guns over the single-decked Allied frigates. The Egyptian fleet was much better equipped and trained than the Ottomans. But the Egyptian ships were crewed by a large number of French mercenary sailors, whose willingness to fight against their own country's navy was doubtful. This factor probably contributed to the Egyptians' poor performance. For the automobile, see Chevrolet Corvette. ... In sailing, a brig is a vessel with two masts at least one of which is square rigged. ... For other uses, see Mercenary (disambiguation). ...

The Ottomans possessed a shore battery on each side of the main entrance to the bay, in Navarino fort and on the islet of Pylos, which bestraddled the approach. These could seriously have impeded Allied entry into the bay, but Codrington was clearly confident that the Ottomans would not start a shooting war. (Or, on an alternative interpretation, he hoped that they would, to give him an excuse to destroy the Ottoman fleet). In military science, a battery is a group of artillery guns or rockets, so grouped in order to facilitate battlefield communication and the organization of barrages. ...

Battle

Fig.5: Ottoman fleet ablaze in Navarino bay, 20 Oct 1827

Fig.6: Action at close quarters during the battle. This detail shows Codrington's flagship, HMS Asia (centre), simultaneously destroying two Ottoman flagships

The Ottoman-Egyptian fleet was anchored in a crescent formation, in three lines, extending from Navarino fort (S) to a point about halfway along the beach where the Navarino - Kalamata road turned inland (N). On the flanks were stationed corvettes and fireships.^[21] The Allied plan was to anchor in the free water inside the crescent. In conventional naval doctrine, this would have been regarded as an unacceptable risk, as it would have invited the enemy to try to surround the Allies.^[22] Furthermore, with the prevailing wind blowing from the SW, straight up the entrance, Codrington risked becoming trapped, unable to extricate his squadrons quickly if he needed to. The adoption of this high-risk plan shows the total confidence of the Allied commanders in the tactical superiority of their vessels. Image File history File links Navarino. ... Image File history File links Navarino. ... Image File history File links Navarino. ... Image File history File links Navarino. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588-08-08 by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted 1796, depicts Drakes fire ship attack on the Spanish Armada This article is about a unit of warfare. ... Military tactics (Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army) are the collective name for methods for engaging and defeating an enemy in battle. ...

At 2 PM, 20 October, Allied warships, with Codrington in the lead in HMS Asia, began filing into the bay through the southern entrance, proceeding in two lines abreast, British followed by French to starboard (SE, closest to Navarino) and Russians to port. There was no attempt to prevent their entry by the Ottoman shore batteries or their corvettes posted at the entrance, but Codrington received a message from Ibrahim Pasha. This stated that he had not given permission for the Allies to enter the bay, and demanded that they withdraw. Codrington dismissed Ibrahim's objection, replying that he had come to give orders, not to take them. He warned that if the Ottomans opened fire, their fleet would be destroyed.^[23]

As his flagship cast anchor in the middle of the Ottoman line, Codrington ordered a brass band to play on deck to emphasize his peaceful intentions. However, the entire crew, as in all Allied ships, was at battle stations, with gun ports half open. Meanwhile as the Allied vessels moved into position, along the Ottoman lines trumpets sounded action stations. Ottoman crews scrambled to meet the unexpected intrusion into their base.

Allied captains were under strict orders to open fire only if they were attacked. Despite this, fighting soon broke out. Codrington claimed that hostilities were started by the Ottomans. The outbreak, according to Allied sources, occurred in the following manner:

At the entrance to the bay, Capt T. Fellowes on the frigate Dartmouth had been detailed, with six smaller boats^[24] to keep watch on the group of Ottoman corvettes and fireships on the left flank of the Ottoman line. As the Allied ships continued moving into the bay, Fellowes noticed that an Ottoman crew was preparing a fireship and sent a boat to instruct them to desist. The Ottomans fired on the boat and lighted the fireship. Fellowes sent a cutter to tow the fireship to a safe distance, but the Ottomans fired on the cutter, inflicting casualties. Fellowes opened musket fire on the fireship crew to cover his men. At this point the French flagship Sirene, which was just then entering the bay, opened fire with muskets to support Fellowes. An Ottoman corvette then attacked Sirene with its guns. This chain reaction spread along the line, so that within a short time, there was general engagement.^[25] For other uses see cutter (disambiguation) An American-looking gaff cutter with a genoa jib set This French yawl has a gaff topsail set. ... This article is about the lead ship, store, or product of a group. ...

Battle of Navarino, by Ivan Aivazovsky.

The battle thus began before the Allies could complete their deployment. In fact, this proved to be a tactical advantage, as it meant some Allied ships were not yet at anchor and could therefore manoeuvre more swiftly. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 552 pixelsFull resolution (1883 × 1300 pixel, file size: 344 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Ivan Aivazovsky. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 552 pixelsFull resolution (1883 × 1300 pixel, file size: 344 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Ivan Aivazovsky. ... Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky (Russian: , Armenian: - Hovhannes Aivazovsky July 29, 1817 - May 5, 1900) was a Russian painter of Armenian descent, most famous for his seascapes, which constitute more than half of his paintings. ...

With ships blasting each other at very close range, the encounter was mostly a matter of attrition, in which superior Allied firepower and gunnery were critical. For example, Codrington's flagship Asia was anchored between Ottoman admiral Capitan Bey's flag, the battleship Fatih Bahri on one side and Moharram Bey's flag, the double-decked frigate Guerriere on the other. Both Ottoman boats were crippled, one after the other, by crushing broadsides from Asia (Fig.6). The same story was repeated along the line.^[26]

Within four hours, virtually the entire Ottoman fleet had been destroyed. Three quarters were sunk: many of them, dismasted but still afloat and reparable, were blown up or set on fire by their own crews to prevent them falling into Allied hands (Fig.5).^[27]This contributed to the horrendous Ottoman and Egyptian casualty figures, as many men were trapped in burning or exploding vessels. Casualties were given to Codrington by the Ottoman naval secretary as approx. 3000 killed, 1109 wounded.^[28] Of the entire Ottoman/Egyptian armada of 78 boats, just eight remained seaworthy.^[29]

Allied casualties were given by Codrington as 181 killed, 480 wounded. Several Allied ships were severely damaged: Russian battleship Azov had been hit 153 times, seven of them below the waterline. Gangut and Iezekiil were also disabled. The three British battleships had to be sent to England for repairs.^[30]

Aftermath

Fig.7: Mahmud II, Ottoman sultan 1808-39, who fought for eight years to defeat the Greek rebellion

The Battle of Navarino was the decisive turning point of the Greek War of Independence. Image File history File linksMetadata Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg‎ Sultan Mahmud II started the modernization of Turkey with the Edict of Tanzimat in 1839 This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author... Image File history File linksMetadata Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg‎ Sultan Mahmud II started the modernization of Turkey with the Edict of Tanzimat in 1839 This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author... The stylized signature of Mahmud II was written in an expressive calligraphy. ...

The battle irreparably crippled Ottoman/Egyptian seapower, depriving the Ottomans of the opportunity to complete the subjugation of Greece. Some 13,000 Ottoman and Egyptian troops remained in the Peloponnese but, cut off from reinforcement and resupply by sea, their position was untenable in the long run.

The Sultan did not, however, concede defeat in Greece for a further two years. Instead he responded to the defeat with the same defiance as when the Greek revolt first broke out in 1821.^[31] A few weeks after the battle, in a symbolic gesture, he proclaimed jihad (holy war) against the European powers in his claimed role as khalifa (caliph, or spiritual leader) of all Muslims. More concretely, he closed the Bosporus to international shipping, a move certain to provoke Russia, whose entire Black Sea trade had to pass through the Straits. He also revoked the Convention of Akkerman, signed the previous year. The Sultan ordered his vassal Muhammad Ali not to withdraw his army from the Peloponnese. For other uses, see Jihad (disambiguation). ... For main article see: Caliphate The Caliph (pronounced khaleef in Arabic) is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, or global Islamic nation. ...

The Sultan's reaction triggered the long-expected Russian land attack. Russia declared war in April 1828 and a Russian army swept through the Romanian Principalities and crossed the Danube, starting the 8th Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829). By mid-1829, after a long and bitterly-contested campaign, they had achieved a complete victory. In September 1829, with a Russian army camped just 40 miles from his capital, Constantinople, the Sultan was forced to capitulate. By the Treaty of Adrianople, he conceded a long list of Russian demands, one of which was acceptance of Greek autonomy as defined in the Treaty of London. Meanwhile Codrington had persuaded Muhammad Ali to withdraw his Egyptians from the Peloponnese, after lengthy negotiations. Ibrahim Pasha's army finally left in October 1828, a year after Navarino. The remaining Ottoman garrisons were cleared by a French expeditionary force under Gen. J-N. Maison. Greek forces then regained control of Central Greece by April 1829 in a lightning campaign.^[32] This article is about the Danube River. ... The Russo–Turkish War of 1828–1829 was sparked by the Greeks struggle for independence. ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ... The 1829 peace treaty of Adrianople (called also Treaty of Edirne), was settled between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. ... Central Greece (Greek: Στερεά Ελλάδα - Stereá Elláda) is one of the thirteen peripheries of Greece. ...

The Sultan's acceptance of the Treaty of London came too late to save Ottoman sovereignty over Greece. Buoyed by the Ottoman disasters on land and sea, and their own military successes, the Greeks had no intention of accepting anything less than full independence. Finally, at the London Conference of 1832, the Allies dropped their policy of Ottoman suzerainty and accepted Greek independence, but insisted the state should be a monarchy not a republic. Later that year, the Sultan was forced by the Allied powers to sign the Treaty of Constantinople (1832) formally recognising the new Kingdom of Greece as an independent state.^[33] Greece, having won its independence from the Ottoman Empire after eight years of war (1821-1829) with the help of the Great Powers (Great Britain, France and Russia) at the Battle of Navarino had formed a republican government with John Capodistrias (Καποδíστριας)as its leader. ... The Τreaty of Constantinople was the product of the Constantinople Conference which opened in February 1832 with the participation of the Great Powers (the United Kingdom, France and Russia) on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire on the other. ... Capital Athens Language(s) Greek Religion Greek Orthodox Government Constitutional Monarchy King  - 1832-1862 Otto  - 1863-1913 George I  - 1913-1917 Constantine I  - 1917-1920 Alexander  - 1920-1922 Constantine I  - 1922-1924 George II Historical era Enlightenment Era  - London Protocol August 30, 1832  - Military junta April 21, 1967 The Kingdom...

Table of Combatant Ships

Source: Compiled from information in W. James Naval History of Great Britain (London, 1837) Vol.VI pp476-89 This article is about a battleship as a type of warship. ... The third HMS Albion was a third-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. ... Scipion was a -rate -gun ship of the line of the French Navy. ... Sailing frigates were 4th, 5th, or 6th-rated ships in the rating system of the Royal Navy. ... In sailing, a brig is a vessel with two masts at least one of which is square rigged. ... For the automobile, see Chevrolet Corvette. ...

Note Exact figures for the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet are difficult to establish. The figures given above are mainly those enclosed by Codrington in his report. These were obtained by one of his officers from the French secretary of the Ottoman fleet, a M. Leteiller. However, another report by Leteiller to the British ambassador to the Porte gives 2 more frigates and 20 less corvettes/brigs for a total of 60 warships. W. James in Naval History of Great Britain (1837) Vol VI p478 assesses the Ottomans' "effective" strength as even lower: 3 battleships, 15 large frigates and 18 corvettes, totalling just 36 ships.

Key

* Other excludes schooners, fireships and launches

Figures in brackets indicate no. of guns
FF = Flagship (Commander-in-Chief)
F = Flagship
dd = double-deck frigate

** Ottoman Empire/Egypt/Tunisia (Ibrahim Pasha)

• Capitan Bey Squadron (Alexandria): 2 battleships, 5 frigates, 12 corvettes
• Moharram Bey Squadron (Alexandria): 4 frigates, 11 corvettes, 21 brigs, 5 schooners, and 5 (or 6?) fireships
• Tunis Squadron (Alexandria): 2 frigates, 1 brig
• Tahir Pasha Squadron (Admiral commanding)(Constantinople): 1 battleship, 6 frigates, 7 corvettes, 6 brigs

This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Two-masted fishing schooner A schooner (IPA: ) is a type of sailing vessel characterized by the use of fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts. ... This article is not about the fireboats that fight fire Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588-08-08 by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted 1796, depicts Drakes fire ship attack on the Spanish Armada. ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ...

Notes

Sir Richard Church (1784 - March 30, 1873), British military officer and general in the Greek army, was the son of a Quaker, Matthew Church of Cork. ... Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald (14 December 1775–October 31, 1860) was a politician and naval adventurer. ...  Countries where a West Slavic language is the national language  Countries where an East Slavic language is the national language  Countries where a South Slavic language is the national language The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages), a group of closely related languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup... Greek Orthodox Church can refer to any of several hierarchical churches within the larger group of mutually recognizing Eastern Orthodox churches: the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, headed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, who is also the first among equals of the Eastern Orthodox Communion. ... The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical Patriarch, ranking as the first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox communion. ... Gregory V was Patriarch of Constantinople from 1797 to 1798, from 1806 to 1808 and from 1818 to 1821. ...

See also

• History of Greece
• Greek War of Independence

This article covers the Greek civilization. ... Combatants Greek revolutionaries United Kingdom France Russian Empire  Ottoman Empire Egyptian Khedivate Commanders Theodoros Kolokotronis Alexander Ypsilanti Georgios Karaiskakis Omer Vryonis Mahmud Dramali Pasha ReÅŸid Mehmed Pasha Ibrahim Pasha. ...

References

• Naval wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (1952), R. C. Anderson. ISBN 1-57898-538-2

External links

• Extract from W. James Naval History of Great Britain (1837) Vol VI 471-90 Main source used for this article, includes reproduction of several original documents, esp. Codrington's own report on the battle
• Aerial View of Navarino Bay
• Navarino Bay (Aerial View)
• Navarino with Location Map