Battle of Thermopylae
Part of the Greco-Persian Wars
The site of the battle today.
Date 480 BC Location Thermopylae, Greece Result Persian victory. Territorial changes Persians successfully conquer Attica.
Belligerents
Greek city-states	Achaemenid Empire
Commanders
Leonidas †	Xerxes I of Persia, Mardonius, Artapanus
Strength
300 Spartans 700 Thespians[1] 6,000 other Greek allies*	80,000 (Ctesias), 150,000 to 200,000 (Modern Consensus) (See below)
Casualties and losses
300 Spartans 900 Helots 1,000 Phocians? 700 Thespians[1] 400 Thebans Unknown others[2]	20,000 (Herodotus)[3]
* Out of the initial 7,000-strong Greek army, all but 2,300 were dismissed on the third day.[1]

Leonidas at Thermopylae, by Jacques Louis David, 1814. This is not a depiction of the place, the battle, or any moment in it, but is a juxtaposition of various incidents in the story told in picture form, which the viewer is to decipher. For example, Leonidas holding the center is seated on a throne. The chest to his right bears the inscription "Heracles", the mythical founder of his royal family. Further to his right is the blinded soldier invalided out for an eye infection being led back to the last stand. Behind him a figure is writing the epitaph of Simonides with the hilt of the sword. The wreaths for which the absent army competed at the games are shown. The temple of Apollo, source of the oracle, appears in the background. It is possible to find many more symbols in this large-size canvas at the Louvre.

In the Battle of Thermopylae (as detailed almost entirely by Herodotus), which occurred in 480 BC, an alliance of Greek city-states fought the invading Persian Empire at the pass of Thermopylae in central Greece. Vastly outnumbered, the Greeks held back the Persians for three days in one of history's most famous last stands. A small force led by King Leonidas I of Sparta blocked the only road through which the massive army of Xerxes I of Persia could pass. After three days of battle, a local resident named Ephialtes is believed to have betrayed the Greeks by revealing a mountain path that led behind the Greek lines. Dismissing the rest of the army, King Leonidas stayed behind with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespian volunteers, 400 Thebans that had been pressed into service, and 900 Helots. The Battle of Thermopylae is a battle fought at the strategic pass of Thermopylae in Greece; it may refer to: Battle of Thermopylae, the famous battle of the Persian Wars in 480 BC. Typically an unqualified reference to Battle of Thermopylae will be about it. ... For the clipper ship, see Thermopylae (clipper). ... Persian Wars redirects here. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2560 × 1920 pixel, file size: 2. ... For the clipper ship, see Thermopylae (clipper). ... The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Dynasty was a dynasty in the ancient Persian Empire, including Cyrus II the Great, Darius I and Xerxes I. At the height of their power, the Achaemenid rulers of Persia ruled over territories roughly emcompassing some parts of todays Iraq, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon... For other uses, see Leonidas (disambiguation). ... Temporary grave of an American machine-gunner during the Battle of Normandy. ... Xerxes I of Persia (sometimes known as Xerxes the Great, in old Persian, 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠[2]) was a king of Persia (reigned 486–465 BC) of the Achaemenid dynasty. ... Mardonius was a Persian commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the 5th century BC. He was the son of Gobryas and the son-in-law of Darius I of Persia, whose daughter Artozostra he had married. ... Artapanus was a Persian General under Xerxes I. According to Ctesias Persica, Artapanus led the first wave of Persians against the Spartan force at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC. Although he led a force of 10,000 men, they were routed by the 300 Spartan defenders. ... For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... Thespiae (Greek Θεσπιαι, Thespiai) was an ancient Greek city in Boeotia. ... Ctesias of Cnidus (in Caria) (Greek ), was a Greek physician and historian, who flourished in the 5th century BC. In early life he was physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied in 401 BC on his expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger. ... Look up Spartan, spartan in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Helots were Peloponnesian Greeks who were enslaved under Spartan rule. ... Phocis (Greek, Modern: Φωκίδα/Fokída, Ancient/Katharevousa: Φωκίς/Phokis; named after the Greek mythological personage Phocus) is an ancient district of central Greece and a prefecture of modern Greece located in Sterea Hellas, one of the thirteen peripheries of Greece. ... Thespiae (Greek Θεσπιαι, Thespiai) was an ancient Greek city in Boeotia. ... Two important places in antiquity were called Thebes: Thebes, Greece – Thebes of the Seven Gates; one-time capital of Boeotia. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“ródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC (c. ... Persian Wars redirects here. ... The Ionian Revolts were triggered by the actions of Aristagoras, the tyrant of the Ionian city of Miletus at the end of the 6th century BC and the beginning of the 5th century BC. They constituted the first major conflict between Greece and Persia. ... Combatants Naxos Persia, Ionia, Naxian exiles Commanders Unknown Aristagoras, Megabates Strength 8,000 men and a large amount of ships Large number of men and 200 ships Casualties Light Heavy The Siege of Naxos (500 BC-499 BC) was a battle fought between the Persians under Megabates with aid from... Combatants Sardis Ionian Greeks, Athens, Eretria Commanders Unknown Aristagoras, Eualcides The Siege of Sardis (498 BC) was fought between the people of Sardis and an alliance of Greeks from Ionia, Athens, and Eretria. ... The Battle of Ephesus (498 BC) was a battle in the Ionian Revolt. ... The Battle of Lade was fought in 494 BC between the Ionians and the Persians. ... Combatants Naxos Persia Commanders Unknown Datis, Artaphernes Strength 8,000 men and a large amount of ships 20,000-60,000 men, Around 600 ships (Modern Estimates) Casualties Heavy Light The Siege of Naxos (490 BC) was fought between the people of Naxos and the Persians under the command of... Combatants Eretria Persia, Cyclades Commanders Aeschines Datis, Artaphernes Strength Unknown 20,000-60,000 men, Around 600 ships Casualties Heavy Heavy The Siege of Eretria was fought by the Eretrians who were invaded by the Persians under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. ... Belligerents Athens, Plataea Achaemenid Empire Commanders Miltiades the Younger, Callimachus â€ , Arimnestus Datis â€ ?, Artaphernes Strength 7,000 to 9,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 20,000 to 60,000 a Casualties and losses 192 Athenians, 11 Plataeans (Herodotus) 6,400, 7 ships captured (Herodotus) a These are modern consensus estimates. ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Eurybiades of Sparta Themistocles of Athens Adeimantus of Corinth Unknown Strength 333 ships 500 ships Casualties Half of Fleet (Herodotus) Unknown The naval Battle of Artemisium took place, according to tradition, on the same day as the Battle of Thermopylae on August 11, 480... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Pausanias Mardonius â€  Strength 110,000 (Herodotus) ~40,000 (Modern Consensus) 300,000 (Herodotus) 50,000-70,000 [1][2][3] (Modern Consensus) Casualties 10,000+ (Ephorus and Diodorus) 1,360 (Plutarch) 759 (Herodotus) 43,000 survived (Herodotus) The Battle of Plataea was the final... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Leotychides Artaÿntes Strength About 40,000 60,000 men, 300 ships Casualties 40,000 The Battle of Mycale, Greek Μάχη Μυκάλης, Mache tes Mycales , was one of the two major battles that ended the Persian invasion of Greece, during the Greco-Persian Wars. ... Combatants Delian League Lybia Egypt Persian Empire Strength 250-40 ships After Greek successes in previous battles the Lybian king that was helping the Egyptians to revolt agianst Persia invited the Greeks that where campaigning in Cyprus with over 200 ships to help him in Egypt. ... Combatants Delian League, Greek Cypriot rebels Persian Empire Commanders Cimon † Artabazus Strength 200 ships 300 ships The Siege of Citium (Kition) was a joint naval and land battle fought between the Athenian-led Delian League and the Persian Empire. ... Combatants Delian League Persia Commanders Cimon † Anaxicrates Strength 300 triremes estimated 800 ships Casualties 40 ships lost over 250 ships lost The Battle of Salamis took place around 450 BC near Salamis in Cyprus. ... Self portrait Jacques-Louis David (August 30, 1748 - December 29, 1825), most usually known as David (pronounced Dah-veed rather than Day-vid), was a French painter. ... This article is about the museum. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“ródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC (c. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... Persia redirects here. ... For the clipper ship, see Thermopylae (clipper). ... ‹ The template below (Dabneeded) is being considered for deletion. ... For other uses, see Leonidas (disambiguation). ... For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... Xerxes I of Persia (sometimes known as Xerxes the Great, in old Persian, 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠[2]) was a king of Persia (reigned 486–465 BC) of the Achaemenid dynasty. ... For other uses, see Ephialtes (disambiguation). ... Helots were Peloponnesian Greeks who were enslaved under Spartan rule. ...

The Persians succeeded in taking the pass but sustained losses disproportionate to those of the Greeks. The fierce resistance of the Spartan-led army offered Athens the invaluable time to prepare for a decisive naval battle that would come to determine the outcome of the war.^[4] The subsequent Greek victory at the Battle of Salamis left much of the Persian Empire's navy destroyed and Xerxes retreated to Asia, leaving a force in Greece under Mardonius, who was to meet the Greeks in battle one last time. The Spartans assembled at full strength and led a pan-Greek army that defeated the Persians decisively at the Battle of Plataea, ending the Greco-Persian War and with it, the expansion of the Persian Empire into Europe.^[5] For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... The French battleship Orient burns, 1 August 1798, during the Battle of the Nile A naval battle is a battle fought using ships or other waterborne vessels. ... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ... Persia redirects here. ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ... Mardonius was a Persian commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the 5th century BC. He was the son of Gobryas and the son-in-law of Darius I of Persia, whose daughter Artozostra he had married. ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Pausanias Mardonius â€  Strength 110,000 (Herodotus) ~40,000 (Modern Consensus) 300,000 (Herodotus) 50,000-70,000 [1][2][3] (Modern Consensus) Casualties 10,000+ (Ephorus and Diodorus) 1,360 (Plutarch) 759 (Herodotus) 43,000 survived (Herodotus) The Battle of Plataea was the final... Combatants Greek city states, particularly Athens and Sparta Persian Empire Commanders Miltiades Themistocles Leonidas I Pausanias Kimon Pericles Mardonius Datis Artaphernes Xerxes I Megabyzus The Greco-Persian Wars or Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greek world and the Persian Empire that started about 500 BC and... Persia redirects here. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

The performance of the defenders at the battle of Thermopylae is often used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers,^[6] and has become a symbol of courage against overwhelming odds.^[6] A force multiplier is a military term referring to a factor that dramatically increases (hence multiplies) the combat effectiveness of a military force. ...

Greek preparations

The Battle of Thermopylae was the first main event in what is generally termed the Second Persian War. Its political origin is to be found in the events of the First Persian War,^[7] when Xerxes' father, King Darius I of Persia, or Darius the Great, invaded Greece for the first time and was defeated by Athens at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. Darius I the Great (c. ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... Belligerents Athens, Plataea Achaemenid Empire Commanders Miltiades the Younger, Callimachus â€ , Arimnestus Datis â€ ?, Artaphernes Strength 7,000 to 9,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 20,000 to 60,000 a Casualties and losses 192 Athenians, 11 Plataeans (Herodotus) 6,400, 7 ships captured (Herodotus) a These are modern consensus estimates. ...

Earth and water

Just prior to that battle Darius had sent heralds around to the Greek states offering the opportunity to submit,^[8] which would avoid war and make them eligible for blandishments from the king.^[9] As was customary, this was signaled by asking for "earth and water", betokening their submission, which was duly kept by the assiduous bureaucrats of the Persian Empire. The Athenians responded at that time by throwing the emissaries into a pit, and the Spartans by throwing others into a well, with a suggestion to dig it out for themselves.^[10] This article, image, template or category should belong in one or more categories. ...

Congress of Corinth

Consequently, when Xerxes sent the envoys around again^[11] just prior to the Battle of Thermopylae, he omitted Athens and Sparta. Support gathered around these two leading states. A congress met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC,^[12] and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. It had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the polity, such as "congress" or "alliance", but calls them simply "οἱ Ἕλληνες" (the Greeks) and "the Greeks who had sworn alliance" (Godley translation) or "the Greeks who had banded themselves together" (Rawlinson translation).^[13] Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress^[14] but interests of all the states played a part in determining defensive strategy. Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussion during its proceedings. Only 70 of the approximately 700 Greek cities sent representatives. Corinth, or Korinth (Greek: Κόρινθος, Kórinthos; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a Greek city-state, on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. ... This article covers the Greek civilization. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“ródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC (c. ...

Vale of Tempe

The congress first sent a force of 10,000 Greeks including hoplites and cavalry to the vale of Tempe, through which they believed the Persian army would have to pass. There is no mention of any Spartans. The force did include Lacedaemonians led by Euanetus, not of the Spartan royal family, and Athenians under Themistocles. Warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through the Sarantoporo Pass and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming, the Greeks decided not to try to hold there and vacated the vale.^[15] The hoplite was a heavy infantryman that was the central focus of warfare in Ancient Greece. ... Vale of Tempe (modern Greek: Témbi) the ancient name of a narrow valley in North Thessaly, Greece, through which the Pineios River reaches the Aegean sea. ... Lacedaemon, or Lakedaimon, Grk. ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... Themistocles (Greek: ; c. ... Alexander I was ruler of Macedon from 495 BC to 450 BC. He was the son of Amyntas I of Macedon. ...

Carneia festival

Herodotus writes:^[16]

The force with Leonidas was sent forward by the Spartans in advance of their main body, that the sight of them might encourage the allies to fight, and hinder them from going over to the Medes, as was likely they might have done had they seen that Sparta was backward. They intended presently, when they had celebrated the Carneian Festival, which was what now kept them at home, to leave a garrison in Sparta, and hasten in full force to join the army. The rest of the allies intended to act similarly; for it happened that the Olympic Festival fell exactly at this same period. None of them looked to see the contest at Thermopylae decided so speedily; wherefore they were content to send forward a mere advance guard. Such accordingly were the intentions of the allies. Median Empire, ca. ... The Carneian festival (Κάρνεια) was one of the most important religious festivals in ancient Sparta, held in honor of Apollo Carneios, who was worshipped in various parts of the Peloponnesus. ... Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia The Ancient Olympic Games, originally referred to as simply the Olympic Games (Greek: ; Olympiakoi Agones) were a series of athletic competitions held between various city-states of Ancient Greece. ...

During the Carneia, military activity was forbidden by Spartan law. At the Battle of Marathon, the Spartans had arrived too late because of this requirement. On this occasion, the ephors decided the urgency was sufficiently great to justify an advance expedition under one of its kings (Leonidas), which can be used to roughly determine the time of year. The Carneia took place in a late summer month (July, August or September) from the 7th to the 15th ending with a full moon.^[17] Belligerents Athens, Plataea Achaemenid Empire Commanders Miltiades the Younger, Callimachus â€ , Arimnestus Datis â€ ?, Artaphernes Strength 7,000 to 9,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 20,000 to 60,000 a Casualties and losses 192 Athenians, 11 Plataeans (Herodotus) 6,400, 7 ships captured (Herodotus) a These are modern consensus estimates. ... An ephor (Classical Greek ) (from the Greek , epi, on or over, and , horaō, to see, i. ...

The oracle

The legend of Thermopylae as told by Herodotus has it that Sparta consulted the Oracle at Delphi before setting out to meet the Persian army. The Oracle is said to have made the following prophecy in hexameter verse:^[18] Michelangelos rendering of the Delphic Sibyl The Delphic Sibyl was the priestess presiding over the Apollonian Oracle at Delphi, a Greek colony, located in a plateau on the side of Mount Parnassus. ... For other uses, see Delphi (disambiguation). ... Michelangelos rendering of the Delphic Sibyl The Delphic Sibyl was the priestess presiding over the Apollonian Oracle at Delphi, a Greek colony, located in a plateau on the side of Mount Parnassus. ... For other uses, see Prophecy (disambiguation). ... Hexameter is a literary and poetic form, consisting of six metrical feet per line as in the Iliad. ...

O ye men who dwell in the streets of broad Lacedaemon!
Either your glorious town shall be sacked by the children of Perseus,
Or, in exchange, must all through the whole Laconian country
Mourn for the loss of a king, descendant of great Heracles. Lacedaemon, or Lakedaimon, Grk. ... Perseus with the head of Medusa, by Antonio Canova, completed 1801 (Vatican Museums) Perseus, Perseos, or Perseas (Greek: Περσεύς, Περσέως, Περσέας), the legendary founder of Mycenae and of the Perseid dynasty there, was the first of the mythic heroes of Greek mythology whose exploits in defeating various archaic monsters provided the founding myths... Alcides redirects here. ...

Marry a good man

The overall commander of Greek forces was now King Leonidas, who was generally admired.^[19] Herodotus writes that he was convinced he was going to certain death, as his forces were not adequate for a victory, and so selected only men with living sons.^[20] Plutarch mentions in his Sayings of Spartan Women that, after encouraging him, Leonidas' wife Gorgo asked what she should do on his departure. He replied, "Marry a good man, and have good children."^[21] Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Gorgo (fl. ...

Arrival of the Persians

Battle of Thermopylae and movements to Salamis, 480 BC

A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle

Image File history File links Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis,_480_BC.gif Summary Description  Battle of Thermopylae and movements to Salamis, 480 BC Author/Source  The Department of History, United States Military Academy Permission  In the public domain as original works of the United States federal government and/or military [1] Licensing File links... Image File history File links Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis,_480_BC.gif Summary Description  Battle of Thermopylae and movements to Salamis, 480 BC Author/Source  The Department of History, United States Military Academy Permission  In the public domain as original works of the United States federal government and/or military [1] Licensing File links... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Competing ideologies

Herodotus attests a conversation that took place early in the expedition between Xerxes and Demaratus, an exiled Spartan king under his employment. Xerxes asked Demaratus whether he thought that the Greeks would put up a fight, for in his opinion neither the Greeks nor even all peoples of Europe together would be able to stop him because they were disunited.^[22] Demaratus replied:^[23] Demaratus, king of Sparta from 515 until 491 BC of the Eurypontid line, successor to his father Ariston. ...

First, they will never accept conditions from you that bring slavery upon Hellas; and second, they will meet you in battle even if all the other Greeks are on your side. Do not ask me how many these men are who can do this; they will fight with you whether they have an army of a thousand men, or more than that, or less.

Xerxes laughed at this answer, claiming that "free men" of any number would never be able to stand against his army which was unified by a single ruler, and that obedience to one single master would make his troops extremely courageous, or they would be led into battle "by the whip" even against an army of any size. He added that "even if the Greeks have larger numbers than our highest estimate, we still would outnumber them 100 to 1". He asserted that his army contained men who would gladly fight with three Greeks at once and that Demaratus was talking nonsense.^[24] To this Demaratus answered:^[25]

I would most gladly fight with one of those men who claim to be each a match for three Greeks. So is it with the Lacedaemonians; fighting singly they are as brave as any man living, and together they are the best warriors on earth. They are free, yet not wholly free: law is their master, whom they fear much more than your men fear you. They do whatever it bids; and its bidding is always the same, that they must never flee from the battle before any multitude of men, but must abide at their post and there conquer or die.

The final decision

On the Persian army's arrival at Thermopylae, Greek troops instigated a council meeting. Some Peloponnesians suggested withdrawal to the Isthmus and blocking the passage to Peloponnesus. They were well aware that the Persians would have to go through Athens in order to reach them there. The Phocians and Locrians, whose states were located nearby, became indignant and advised defending Thermopylae and sending for more help. Leonidas and the Spartans agreed to defend Thermopylae.^[26] Greece and the Peloponnese The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος Peloponnesos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large peninsula in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. ... The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow landbridge which connects the Peloponnesos peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth. ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... Phocis (Greek, Modern: Φωκίδα, Ancient/Katharevousa: -s, also Phokida, Phokis) is an ancient district of central Greece. ... The Locrians or Locri (Greek: ) were an ancient greek people in Greece. ...

Combing their long hair

Meanwhile, the Persians entered the pass and sent a mounted scout to reconnoiter. The Greeks allowed him to come up to the camp, observe them, and depart. When the scout reported to Xerxes the size of the Greek force and that the Spartans were indulging in calisthenics and combing their long hair, Xerxes found the reports laughable. Seeking again the counsel of Demaratus, Xerxes was told that the Spartans were preparing for battle and that it was their custom to adorn their hair when they were about to risk their lives. Demaratus called them "the bravest men in Greece" and warned the Great King that they intended to dispute the pass. He emphasized that he had tried to warn Xerxes earlier in the campaign, but the king had refused to believe him. He added that if Xerxes ever managed to subdue the Spartans, "there is no other nation in all the world which will venture to lift a hand in their defence" (Rawlinson translation).^[27] Female internees practicing calisthenics in Manzanar. ...

Come and get them

Xerxes remained incredulous, finding it unbelievable for such a small army to contend with his own. Plutarch informs that he then sent emissaries to the Greek forces. At first, he asked Leonidas to join him by offering the kingship of all Greece. Leonidas answered: "If you had any knowledge of the noble things of life, you would refrain from coveting others' possessions; but for me to die for Greece is better than to be the sole ruler over the people of my race."^[28] Then Xerxes asked him more forcefully to surrender their arms. To this Leonidas gave his noted answer: Μολὼν Λαβέ, "Come and get them".^[29] The words MOLON LABE (ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ) in Greek as they are inscribed on the marble of the modern era monument at Thermopylae. ...

Despite their extremely disproportionate numbers, Greek morale was high. Herodotus writes that when Dienekes, a Spartan soldier, was informed that Persian arrows would be so numerous as "to blot out the sun", he responded with a characteristically laconic remark, "So much the better; we shall fight in the shade."^[30] Dienekes (Greek: Διηνέκης) was a Spartan officer present at the Battle of Thermopylae. ... A Laconic phrase is a very concise or terse statement, named after Laconia (a. ...

Battle

Failure of the frontal assault

Greek phalanx based on sources from The Perseus Project.

Persian warriors

Xerxes waited four days for the Greek force to disperse. On the fifth day he sent Medes and Cissians, along with relatives of those who had died ten years earlier in the battle of Marathon, to take the Greeks prisoner and bring them before him.^[31][32] They soon found themselves in a frontal assault.^[31] The Greeks had camped on either side of the rebuilt Phocian wall. The wall was guarded and the Greeks fought in front of it.^[33] Image File history File links Greek_Phalanx. ... Image File history File links Greek_Phalanx. ... Median Empire, ca. ... External links Official website of Khuzestan Governorship Categories: Iran geography stubs | Provinces of Iran ... Belligerents Athens, Plataea Achaemenid Empire Commanders Miltiades the Younger, Callimachus â€ , Arimnestus Datis â€ ?, Artaphernes Strength 7,000 to 9,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 20,000 to 60,000 a Casualties and losses 192 Athenians, 11 Plataeans (Herodotus) 6,400, 7 ships captured (Herodotus) a These are modern consensus estimates. ... The military tactic of frontal assault is a direct, hostile movement of forces towards enemy forces in a large number, in an attempt to overwhelm the enemy. ...

Details of the tactics are scant. Diodorus says "the men stood shoulder to shoulder" and the Greeks were "superior in valor and in the great size of their shields."^[34] The formation being described is the standard Greek phalanx, a wall of overlapping shields and layered spear points, which would only have been effective if it spanned the width of the pass. Herodotus says that the units for each state were kept together.^[19] The small shields and shorter spears of the Persians were not a match for the superior armament of the Greek hoplites.^[34][35] The Greeks killed so many Medes that Xerxes is said to have started up off the seat from which he was watching the battle three times.^[36] According to Ctesias, the first wave was "cut to pieces" with only two or three Spartans dead.^[37] For other uses, see phalanx. ... Warfare in Hellenic Greece centered mainly around heavy infantrymen called hoplites. ... Ctesias of Cnidus (in Caria) (Greek ), was a Greek physician and historian, who flourished in the 5th century BC. In early life he was physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied in 401 BC on his expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger. ...

According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the king, having taken the measure of the enemy, threw his best troops into a second assault on the same day: the Immortals, an elite corps of 10,000 men.^[34][35] Ctesias tells a totally different story, that Xerxes sent another 20,000 troops against the Greeks, after the first 10,000 under Artapanus were defeated. They also failed to open the pass even though they were flogged by their leaders to press on.^[37] Although there might have been 10,000 Medes, the Immortals were only 10,000 and as elite troops it would not have been necessary to flog them. On the second day Xerxes sent, according to Ctesias, another 50,000 men to assault the pass, but again they failed. Xerxes at last stopped the assault and withdrew to his camp, totally perplexed.^[37] A Persian Immortal wielding a spear, wicker shield, dagger, and bow. ... Artapanus was a Persian General under Xerxes I. According to Ctesias Persica, Artapanus led the first wave of Persians against the Spartan force at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC. Although he led a force of 10,000 men, they were routed by the 300 Spartan defenders. ...

Encirclement of the Greeks

Late on the second day of battle, as the Persian king was pondering what to do next, he received a windfall: a Malian Greek traitor named Ephialtes informed him of a path around Thermopylae and offered to guide the Persian army. Ephialtes was motivated by the desire of a reward.^[38] For this act, the name of Ephialtes received a lasting stigma, coming to mean "nightmare" and becoming the archetypal term for a "traitor" in Greek.^[39] For other uses, see Ephialtes (disambiguation). ...

In Herodotus, Xerxes sends his commander Hydarnes to flank the pass with the men under his command, but he does not say who those men are.^[40] Hydarnes commanded the Immortals, but they had been cut to pieces the day before. Ctesias tells a different story, asserting that 40,000 troops were sent around the pass conducted by the leaders of the Trachinians.^[37] The stories can be reconciled by presuming that Hydarnes was given overall command of an enhanced force including what was left of the Immortals, but it is only a presumption. The Immortals were given such a name because when a member fell in battle he was immediately replaced by another to maintain the 10,000, therefore it is also possible they had been replenished from the previous day's fighting. The path led from east of the Persian camp along the ridge of Mt. Anopaea behind the cliffs that flanked the pass. It branched with one path leading to Phocis and the other down to the Gulf of Malis at Alpenus, first town of Locris. Leonidas had stationed 1,000 Phocian volunteers on the heights to guard that path.^[41] Hydarnes, son of Hydarnes, was an eminent Persian, the commander of the Ten Thousand Immortals during the time of the Persian Wars with Greece. ... Trachis was a landscape in ancient Greece. ... Locris was a region of ancient Greece, made up of two districts. ... Phocis (Greek, Modern: Φωκίδα/Fokída, Ancient/Katharevousa: Φωκίς/Phokis; named after the Greek mythological personage Phocus) is an ancient district of central Greece and a prefecture of modern Greece located in Sterea Hellas, one of the thirteen peripheries of Greece. ...

Their first warning of the approach of the Persians at daybreak was the rustling of oak leaves. Herodotus says that they jumped up and were greatly amazed.^[42] Hydarnes was perhaps as amazed to see them hastily arming themselves as they were to see him and the Persian forces. He feared that they were Spartans, but was enlightened by Ephialtes and proceeded by firing "showers of arrows" at them. The Phocians retreated to the crest of the mountain to make their stand and defend their city which was behind the mountain range, but the Persians took the left branch of the pass to Alpenus and hence circled behind the main Greek force.^[42]

Last stand of the Greeks

Immortals (lancers), detail from the archers' frieze in Darius' palace in Susa.

Learning that the Phocians had not held, Leonidas called a council of war at dawn. Some Greeks argued for withdrawal, while others pledged to stay. After the council, many of the Greek forces did choose to withdraw.^[43] Herodotus believed that Leonidas blessed their departure with an order, but he also offered the alternative point of view that those retreating forces departed without orders.^[44] The Spartans had pledged themselves to fight to the death. However, a contingent of about 700 Thespians, led by general Demophilus, the son of Diadromes, refused to leave with the other Greeks, but cast their lot with the Spartans.^[45] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (924x1322, 1084 KB) Summary Description: Lancers, detail from the archers frieze in Darius palace, Susa. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (924x1322, 1084 KB) Summary Description: Lancers, detail from the archers frieze in Darius palace, Susa. ... For other uses, see Susa (disambiguation). ... A council of war is a term in military science that describes a meeting held to decide on a course of action, usually in the midst of a battle. ... Thespiae (Greek Θεσπιαι, Thespiai) was an ancient Greek city in Boeotia. ... Demophilus (died 480 BC) was a general of Thespiae and the son of Diadromes. ...

The Greeks this time sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of the pass in an attempt to slaughter as many Persians as they could. They fought with spears until every spear was shattered and then switched to xiphē (short swords). In this struggle, Herodotus states that two brothers of Xerxes fell: Abrocomes and Hyperanthes. Leonidas also died in the assault and they fought over his body, the Greeks taking possession.^[46] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Abrocomes was a son of king Darius I of Persia and his wife Phratagune, who died with his full brother Hyperanthes in the battle of Thermopylae, while fighting over the body of Leonidas (Herodotus, 7. ... Hyperanthes was a son of Darius the Great of Persia and brother to Xerxes I. He was present in the second invasion of Greece in 480 BC. According to Herodotus, he fought and died alongside his other brother Abrocomes in the battle of Thermopylae in the final phase known as...

Receiving intelligence that Ephialtes and the Immortals were advancing toward the rear, the Greeks withdrew and took a stand on a hill behind the wall. The Thebans "moved away from their companions, and with hands upraised, advanced toward the barbarians..." (Rawlinson translation), but a few were slain before their surrender was accepted. The king later had the Theban prisoners branded with the royal mark.^[47] Of the remaining defenders Herodotus says: "Here they defended themselves to the last, those who still had swords using them, and the others resisting with their hands and teeth; ...."^[48] Tearing down part of the wall, Xerxes ordered the hill surrounded and the Persians rained down arrows until every last Greek was dead.^[48] In 1939 the archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos, excavating at Thermopylae, found large numbers of Persian bronze arrowheads on Kolonos Hill, changing the identification of the hill on which the Greeks died from a smaller one nearer the wall.^[49] Spyridon Nikolaou Marinatos (November 4, 1901 - October 1, 1974) was one of the premier Greek archaeologists of the 20th century, whose most notable discovery was the site of the Minoan port city on the island of Thera destroyed and preserved by the massive volcanic eruption, ca 1650-1600 BCE, spawning...

Aftermath

When the body of Leonidas was recovered by the Persians, Xerxes, in a rage against Leonidas, ordered that the head be cut off and the body crucified. Herodotus observes that this was very uncommon for the Persians, as they had the habit of treating "valiant warriors" with great honor^[50] (the example of Pytheas captured earlier off Skyros also suggests that).^[51] However, Xerxes was known for his rage, as when he had the Hellespont whipped because it would not obey him.^[52] Leonidas can refer to: Leonidas I, king of Sparta, ruled c. ... For other uses, see Crucifixion (disambiguation). ... Skyros (Greek: Σκύρος) is the southernmost island of the Sporades, a Greek archipelago in the Aegean Sea. ... The Helespont/Dardanelles, a long narrow strait dividing the Balkans (Europe) along the Gallipoli peninsula from Asia Anatolia (Asia Minor). ...

Xerxes was curious as to what the Greeks were trying to do (presumably because there were so few numbers) and had some Arcadian deserters interrogated in his presence. The answer was that all the other men were participating in the Olympic Games. When Xerxes asked what the prize for the winner was, "an olive-wreath" was the answer. Upon hearing this, Tigranes, a Persian general, said: "Good heavens, Mardonius, what kind of men are these that you have pitted against us? It is not for money that they contend but for glory of achievement!" (Godley translation) or otherwise "Ye Gods, Mardonius, what men have you brought us to fight against? Men that fight not for gold, but for honour."^[53] Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia The Ancient Olympic Games, originally referred to as simply the Olympic Games (Greek: ; Olympiakoi Agones) were a series of athletic competitions held between various city-states of Ancient Greece. ... Tigranes (sometimes Tigran or Dikran) was the name of a number of historical figures, primarily kings of Armenia. ... Mardonius was a Persian commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the 5th century BC. He was the son of Gobryas and the son-in-law of Darius I of Persia, whose daughter Artozostra he had married. ...

After the Persians' departure, the Greeks collected their dead and buried them on the hill. A stone lion was erected to commemorate Leonidas.^[48] Forty years after the battle, Leonidas' bones were returned to Sparta where he was buried again with full honors and funeral games were held every year in his memory.^[54]

The simultaneous naval Battle of Artemisium was a stalemate, whereupon the Athenian navy retreated. The Persians were now in control of the Aegean Sea and all of peninsular Greece as far south as Attica. The Spartans prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth and the Peloponnese, while Xerxes went on to sack Athens, whose inhabitants had already fled to the island of Salamis. In September, the Greeks defeated the Persians at the naval Battle of Salamis, which led to the rapid retreat of Xerxes. The remaining Persian army, left under the charge of Mardonius, was defeated in the Battle of Plataea by a combined Greek army again led by the Spartans, under the regent Pausanias.^[55] Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Eurybiades of Sparta Themistocles of Athens Adeimantus of Corinth Unknown Strength 333 ships 500 ships Casualties Half of Fleet (Herodotus) Unknown The naval Battle of Artemisium took place, according to tradition, on the same day as the Battle of Thermopylae on August 11, 480... Look up Aegean Sea in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about Attica in Greece. ... The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow landbridge which connects the Peloponnesos peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth. ... Greece and the Peloponnese The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος Peloponnesos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large peninsula in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... Salamis (Greek, Modern: Σαλαμίνα Salamína, Ancient/Katharevousa: Σαλαμίς Salamís) is the largest Greek island in the Saronic Gulf, about 1 nautical mile (2 km) off-coast from Piraeus. ... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ... Mardonius was a Persian commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the 5th century BC. He was the son of Gobryas and the son-in-law of Darius I of Persia, whose daughter Artozostra he had married. ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Pausanias Mardonius â€  Strength 110,000 (Herodotus) ~40,000 (Modern Consensus) 300,000 (Herodotus) 50,000-70,000 [1][2][3] (Modern Consensus) Casualties 10,000+ (Ephorus and Diodorus) 1,360 (Plutarch) 759 (Herodotus) 43,000 survived (Herodotus) The Battle of Plataea was the final... Pausanias (Greek = Παυσανίας) was a Spartan general of the 5th century BCE. He was the nephew of Leonidas I and served as regent after his uncles death, as Leonidas son, Pleistarchus was still under-age. ...

Topography of the battlefield

Thermopylae derives half of its name from its hot springs. This river is formed by the steaming water which smells like sulfur. In the background, you can see buildings of the modern baths. In ancient times the springs created a swamp.

At the time, the pass of Thermopylae consisted of a track along the shore of the Gulf of Malis so narrow that only one chariot could pass through at a time.^[56] On the southern side of the track stood the cliffs, while on the north side was the gulf. Along the path was a series of three constrictions, or "gates" (pylai), and at the center gate a short wall that had been erected by the Phocians in the previous century to aid in their defense against Thessalian invasions.^[56] The name "Hot Gates" comes from the hot springs that were located there. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2560 × 1920 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2560 × 1920 pixel, file size: 2. ... For the clipper ship, see Thermopylae (clipper). ... Green Dragon Spring at Norris Geyser A hot spring is a place where warm or hot groundwater issues from the ground on a regular basis for at least a predictable part of the year, and is significantly above the ambient ground temperature (which is usually around 55~57°F or... This article is about the chemical element. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Phocis (Greek, Modern: Φωκίδα, Ancient/Katharevousa: -s, also Phokida, Phokis) is an ancient district of central Greece. ... Thessaly (Θεσσαλια; modern Greek Thessalía) is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. ... Green Dragon Spring at Norris Geyser A hot spring is a place where warm or hot groundwater issues from the ground on a regular basis for at least a predictable part of the year, and is significantly above the ambient ground temperature (which is usually around 55~57 F or...

Today, the pass is not near the sea but is several miles inland due to infilling of the Gulf of Malis. The old track appears at the foot of hills around the plain, flanked by a modern road. Recent core samples indicate that the pass was only 100 meters wide and the waters came up to the gates. Says Lyn Dore: "Little do the visitors realize that the battle took place across the road from the monument."^[57] The pass still is a natural defensive position to modern armies and British Commonwealth forces in World War II made another defense against the Nazi invasion meters from the original battle field. Core sample. ... The Commonwealth of Nations as of 2008. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Combatants ANZAC Corps, Australian Forces Nazi Germany Commanders General Bernard Freyberg George Vasey  ??? The Battle of Thermopylae during World War II occurred in 1941 following the retreat from the Olympus and Servia passes. ... National Socialism redirects here. ...

Detailed maps of the region are to be found at these sites:

• Map 1,
• Map 2,

Pictures showing the terrain are to be found at these sites:

• View from the east at livius.org. On the left are the cliffs to the south; on the right, the road and the edge of the agricultural region that once were the Gulf of Malis.
• Modern monument at siu.edu
• Spartan burial mound at coloradocollege.edu
• Artemisium at prigsbee.com

Size of the Persian army

Primary sources

In 480 BC, the Persian army and navy arrived at the Persian garrison of Doriscus in Thrace. A bridge of ships had been made at Abydos. This allowed the land forces to cross the Hellespont. At Doriscus, Xerxes conducted a review and a count of his army and navy, which was recorded by the Persian scribes. Herodotus must have had some sort of knowledge of this account, as he lists and describes the units and gives the size of Xerxes' combined forces as follows: Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak  Thrace (Bulgarian: , Greek: , Attic Greek: ThrāíkÄ“ or ThrēíkÄ“, Latin: , Turkish: ) is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. ... Abydos, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated at Nagara Point on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile broad. ... The Helespont/Dardanelles, a long narrow strait dividing the Balkans (Europe) along the Gallipoli peninsula from Asia Anatolia (Asia Minor). ... Xerxes I of Persia (sometimes known as Xerxes the Great, in old Persian, 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠[2]) was a king of Persia (reigned 486–465 BC) of the Achaemenid dynasty. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“ródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC (c. ...