Neolithic Europe

The outcomes of battles have often been assessed by historians in respect to their influence on the development of polities, states or cultures. This article provides an overview of those battles whose outcome has been judged by at least two modern historians to be of lasting cultural or political importance for European nation-states—or European polities recognized by historians as independent nation-states—and invading outside forces. It does not include the battles where both opposing factions were European, but may contain battles where both opposing forces belonged to a similar culture, and it examines only those battles which two or more historians since 1960 believe to have massively affected the course of history. The historians consulted on the subject considered European culture and civilization as a development from the Greco-Roman world to the modern civilizations of that area, which did and does not include all of Europe within its defined geographic borders. Download high resolution version (1320x663, 100 KB)Map of the European Late Neolithic (c. ... Download high resolution version (1320x663, 100 KB)Map of the European Late Neolithic (c. ... Battles is an American instrumental rock band. ... World map showing the location of Europe. ... In modern Olympic and amateur wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation. ...

The battles

The Battle of Thermopylae

Main article: Battle of Thermopylae

Leonidas at Thermopylae, by Jacques-Louis David (1814)

The battle of Thermopylae took place on August 11, 480 BC. In the context of the Greco-Persian Wars, Xerxes I of Persia was preparing his assault on Athens, while the Greeks were forced to retreat. Having dismissed all but 1,200 of the 7,000 strong Greek army, king Leonidas I of Sparta prepared a last stand in order to give time to the rest of the Greek soldiers to retreat. Even though Leonidas and his 300 Spartans were eventually killed after three days of battle, they were able to inflict the (comparatively) enormous losses of 20,000 men to the Persians. This was even more impressive because of the fact that the Persian army commanded by Xerxes was almost two hundred times larger than Leonidas' army. Even though in the end the Persians annihilated the Greek combatants, the result was a pyrrhic victory for the Persians, and it represented a turning point in the Greco-Persian wars, which would continue with the Greek victories at Plataea and Mycale. Combatants Greek city-states Achaemenid Persia Commanders Leonidas I † Xerxes the Great Strength 300 Spartans 900 Helots[1] 700 Thespians 400 Thebans[1] 5,000 other Greek allies1 Estimates vary (See below) Casualties 300 Spartans 900 Helots[1] 700 Thespians 400 Thebans[1] 1,400 Greek allies 20,000 (Modern... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2024x1508, 308 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Jacques-Louis David Leonidas I Battle of Thermopylae La Grande Armée Histories (Herodotus) User:Markaci/Nudity ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2024x1508, 308 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Jacques-Louis David Leonidas I Battle of Thermopylae La Grande Armée Histories (Herodotus) User:Markaci/Nudity ... August 11 is the 223rd day of the year (224th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events King Xerxes I of Persia sets out to conquer Greece. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles. ... Xerxes the Great (Persian: خشایارشا, Khšāyāršā, Old Persian: Xšayāršā) was a Persian Emperor (Shahanshah) (reigned 485–465 BCE) of the Achaemenid Dynasty. ... Athens (Greek: Αθήνα - Athína) is the largest city and capital of Greece, located in the Attica periphery of central Greece. ... Leonidas (Greek: - Lions son, Lion-like) was a king of Sparta, the 17th of the Agiad line, one of the sons of King Anaxandridas II of Sparta. ... Sparta (Doric: Spártā, Attic: Spártē) is a city in southern Greece. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Battle of Thermopylae. ... A Pyrrhic victory is a victory with devastating cost to the victor. ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Pausanias Mardonius† Strength 100,000 (Pompeius) 110,000 (Herodotus) 120,000 (Ctesias) 300,000 (Herodotus and Plutarch) Casualties 10,000+ (Ephorus and Diodorus) 1,360 (Plutarch) 159 (Herodotus) 43,000 survived (Herodotus) 100,000 killed (Diodorus) The Battle of Plataea was the last battle... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Leotychides Artaÿntes Strength About 40,000 60,000 men, 300 ships Casualties 40,000 The Battle of Mycale, Greek Μάχη Μυκάλης, Mache tes Mycales , was one of the two major battles that ended the Persian invasion of Greece, during the Greco-Persian Wars. ...

The resistance of the Spartan-led army offered Athens the invaluable opportunity to make battle preparations and decisively defeat the Persians at the battles of Salamis. Militarily, it was this vital purchase of time that the Spartans bought so bravely with their very lives that literally saved the Greek fleet. Modern Historian Michael Grant says "so Leonidas, after dismissing most of his force, fought with his own men to the death, falling in defeat, but creating a saga of Spartan heroism; and he had delayed the Persians for at least a week, thus saving the Greek fleet at Artemisium."^[1] N.S. Gill hypothesizes that

"their courage provided inspiration to the Greeks, many of whom otherwise might have willingly become part of the Persian Empire." [1]

Historian Ernle Bradford says in his book Thermopylae: The Battle for the West that "the whole of the East was at move..."

"The three-day battle for the pass at Thermopylae (the Hot Gates)--a critical contest in Xerxes's massive invasion of Greece. The bloody stand made there by Leonidas and his small Spartan army in 480 B.C. has been hailed ever since as an outstanding example of patriotism, courage, and sacrifice."

Historian Steven Pressfield says in Gates of Fire: "This is a story of heroism. But it is also a story of discipline, of loyalty between fighting men and to a state. For a book as violent as this, it is also a story of profound caring, among the characters of a timeless story." Because a great part of European civilisation is based on the heritage of Ancient Greece, a successful invasion of Greece by the Persians and their subsequent domination would have surely changed the history of Europe. Dr.Ellis L. Knox, Historian at Boise State University, says in The Persian Wars The Temple to Athena, the Parthenon Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around three thousand years. ...

"Thermopylae was always hailed as a triumph for Greek arms because the Persian army was crucially delayed. Thermopylae allowed the Greeks time to organize. Themistocles did not lose heart and continued to drive the shipbuilders for all they were worth. He was still confident of victory at sea. Moreover, the Greeks were heartened by the example of Leonidas, the Spartans, and the others who fought at Thermopylae. This battle served as an example to officers and soldiers alike, not only through Greek history but Roman as well, of what can be accomplished through heroic self-sacrifice." [2]

The Battle of the Metaurus

Main article: Battle of the Metaurus

Coin shows Hasdrubal as strategus of Iberia

The battle of the Metaurus was fought in 207 BC by the Roman Republic and Carthage, who were then waging the Second Punic War. It took place near the Metaurus river in northern Italy, and it was fought between a Carthaginian army headed by Hasdrubal Barca, brother of Hannibal and a slightly larger Roman army headed by consuls Marcus Livius Salinator and Gaius Claudius Nero. When the latter found out that Hasdrubal was planning on joining Hannibal's armies in order to launch a final all-out attack on Rome, he hastily set out to join Salinator to intercept the Carthaginian armies. Hasdrubal, knowing that his forces were inferior in number and in fighting prowess, tried to avoid combat, but he was eventually caught at the banks of the Metaurus. There, the Roman legionaires were able to achieve an important victory, and Hasdrubal found his death at the end of the battle. Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hasdrubal Barca † Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Porcius Licinus Strength unknown Livius: 2 city legions, Nero: 6,000 foot, 1,000 horse, Licinus: 2 legions Casualties 57,000 killed, 5,400 prisoners 8,000 killed The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle... Image File history File links Hasdrubal_coin. ... Image File history File links Hasdrubal_coin. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 212 BC 211 BC 210 BC 209 BC 208 BC - 207 BC - 206 BC 205 BC... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, c. ... Carthage (Greek: , from the Phoenician meaning new town, Arabic: , Latin: ) refers both to an ancient city in North Africa located in modern day Tunis and to the civilization that developed within the citys sphere of influence. ... Combatants Image:SPQR-Stone. ... The Metauro River (in Latin Metaurus or Mataurus) of Italy rises in the Apennine Mountains of Tuscany and runs east for 109 km, reaching the Adriatic south of Fano. ... This article is about the ancient city-state of Carthage in North Africa. ... Hasdrubal Barca (d. ... Hannibal Barca (247 BC – c. ... This article is about the highest office of the Roman Republic. ... Marcus Livius Salinator (254 BC-c. ... Gaius Claudius Nero was a Roman consul who fought in the Battle of the Metaurus. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5... This article is about the ancient city-state of Carthage in North Africa. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of...

This battle prevented a full-scale attack on Rome to which the city may well have fallen. Historian Paul K. Davis says:

"For 11 years Hannibal had his own way in Italy, defeating every force the Romans could send against him. Still, the constant warfare and inability to recruit quality troops locally meant he had to have reinforcements if he was going to capture Rome itself and dictate terms. Hasdrubal's defeat near the Metaurus River meant that would not happen...had Hasdrubal joined with his brother, the resulting force could well have captured Rome and changed the fortunes of the Mediterranean Basin."^[2]

The success of Hannibal's military tactics, the defection of several allies of Rome and the political instability in Rome had brought it to the brink of defeat, but after the victory at the banks of the Metaurus, the current of the conflict shifted and the tide turned to the favour of the Roman Republic. Robert F. Pennell wrote in Ancient Rome from the Earliest Times Down to 476AD in 1890:

"The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during four years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout Italy."[3]

At the Battle of Ilipa, Carthaginian control of the Iberian peninsula would be broken forever, and Carthage would concede more and more ground until the final battle at Zama. If, on the other hand, Rome had fallen, the Roman Empire would never have exerted its influence on European history, an influence which shaped a great deal of European culture. The Achaean Greek historian Polybius wrote in book 6 of his history of Rome—in the aftermath of their defeat by Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae, the worst defeat the Republic would ever endure—of Rome's survival and onward march to Metaurus: The Battle of Ilipa was a battle of the Second Punic War. ... The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe. ... Carthage (Greek: , from the Phoenician meaning new town, Arabic: , Latin: ) refers both to an ancient city in North Africa located in modern day Tunis and to the civilization that developed within the citys sphere of influence. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic East Numidia Commanders Hannibal Scipio Africanus Masinissa Strength almost 58,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 80 war elephants 34,000 Roman infantry 3,000 Roman cavalry 6,000 Numidian cavalry Casualties 20,000 killed 11,000 wounded 15,000 captured 1,500 killed 4,000 wounded... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, c. ... The Achaean League was a confederation of Greek city states in Achaea, a territory on the northern coast of the Peloponnese. ... Polybius (c. ... For the 11th-century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018). ...

"they not only reclaimed the sovereignty of Italy, and went on to conquer the Carthaginians, but in just a few years themselves became rulers of the entire world."

The Battle of Chalons (sometimes called the Catalaunian Fields)

Main article: Battle of Chalons

The battle of Chalons, sometimes called the Catalaunic Fields took place on June 20, 451. The Hunnic king Attila had ravaged almost all Europe, and was vying for control of Gaul. After besieging the city of Orléans, Attila was confronted by a Roman army headed by Flavius Aëtius (who had been exiled with the Huns during his youth) and his foederatus, Theodoric I, king of the Visigoths. Both sides also had a number of other minor allies which fought at their side. The Hunnic forces tried to take a dominant position but were repelled by Roman troops, which subsequently launched a charge against the Huns. During this charge, in which Theodoric was killed and his son Thorismund almost trapped in the Hunnic camp, the Huns were nevertheless crippled. They were not annihilated, though; many historians, including Gibbon, believe that Aëtius convinced Thorismund that it was better not to destroy the Huns, on the grounds that total extermination of the Huns would inevitably lead to Rome finding a new enemy in the strengthened Visigoths. Indeed, J.F.C. Fuller, in A Military History of the Western World, claims that Attila survived only because Aetius allowed him to, in "a battle that saved Europe." (Fuller, vol. 1: p.297) Combatants Western Roman Empire, Visigoths, Alans Huns, Ostrogoths, Burgundians Commanders Flavius Aëtius, Theodoric† Attila the Hun Strength 30,000–50,000 500,000–1,000,000 At the Battle of Chalons (also called the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields or the Battle of the Catalun[] or the Battle of... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (551x831, 139 KB)The Huns at the Battle of Chalons from page 135 of A Popular History of France From The Earliest Times Volume I of VI (Project Gutenberg e-text). ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (551x831, 139 KB)The Huns at the Battle of Chalons from page 135 of A Popular History of France From The Earliest Times Volume I of VI (Project Gutenberg e-text). ... June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... Events April 7 - The Huns sack Metz June 20 - Attila, king of the Huns is defeated at Troyes by Aëtius in the Battle of Chalons. ... Many historians consider the Huns (meaning person in Mongolian language) the first Turkic people mentioned in European history. ... For other uses, see Attila (disambiguation). ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Orléans Cathedral, dedicated to the Holy Cross, built from 1278 to 1329; after being pillaged by Huguenots in the 1560s, the Bourbon kings restored it in the 17th century. ... Flavius Aëtius or simply Aetius, ( 396–454), was a Roman general of the closing period of the Western Roman Empire. ... Foederatus early in the history of the Roman Republic identified one of the tribes bound by treaty (foedus), who were neither Roman colonies nor had they been granted Roman citizenship (civitas) but were expected to provide a contingent of fighting men when trouble arose. ... Theodoric I, sometimes called Theodorid and in Spanish Teodorico, was the King of the Visigoths from 419–451. ... Migrations The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe (the Ostrogoths being the other). ... Thorismund (Torismond or in Spanish and Portuguese Turismundo) became king of the Visigoths after his father Theodoric was killed in the Battle of Chalons in 451 CE. He died in 453 and was succeeded by his brother Theodoric II. Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman...

This battle, especially since Edward Gibbon addressed it in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and Sir Edward Creasy wrote his The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, has been considered by many historians as one of the most important battles of late antiquity. Edward Gibbon (1737–1794). ... The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, a major literary achievement of Eighteenth Century, was written by the British historian, Edward Gibbon. ... Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy (1812 - 1878), historian, was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and called to the Bar in 1837. ... The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo is a book written by Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy and published in 1851. ...

Creasy quoted Herbert's work "Attila" concerning this battle, i., line 13.

"The discomfiture of the mighty attempt of Attila to found a new anti-Christian dynasty upon the wreck of the temporal power of Rome, at the end of the term of twelve hundred years, to which its duration had been limited by the forebodings of the heathen."

Creasy and Gibbon represent the traditional view, as Creasy himself stated:

Attila's attacks on the Western empire were soon renewed, but never with such peril to the civilized world as had menaced it before his defeat at Châlons; and on his death, two years after that battle, the vast empire which his genius had founded was soon dissevered by the successful revolts of the subject nations. The name of the Huns ceased for some centuries to inspire terror in Western Europe, and their ascendency passed away with the life of the great king by whom it had been so fearfully augmented."

Historian Paul K, Davis, in 100 Decisive Battles, argues for its importance: "Roman defeat of the Huns stopped the Asian spread westward, setting up the collapse of Attila's empire two years later".^[3] He says that "by halting hun expansion, the battle at Chalons kept Attila from dominating western Europe. Aetius force was thrown together at the last minute, if had not been defeated, there was really no other organized population that could have withstood the huns."^[4]

John J. Nowrich, the historian known for his works on Vienna and on Byzantium, said of the battle of Chalons:

"it should never be forgotten that in the summer of 451 and again in 452, the whole fate of western civilization hung in the balance. Had the Hunnish army not been halted in these two successive campaigns, had its leader toppled Valentinian from his throne and set up his own capital at Ravenna or Rome, there is little doubt that both Gaul and Italy would have been reduced to spiritual and cultural deserts."^[5]

He goes on to say that though the battle in 451 was

"indecisive insofar as both sides sustained immense losses and neither was left master of the field, it had the effect of halting the Huns advance."^[6]

However, J.B. Bury expresses a quite different judgement:

The battle of Maurica was a battle of nations, but its significance has been enormously exaggerated in conventional history. It cannot in any reasonable sense be designated as one of the critical battles of the world. The Gallic campaign had really been decided by the strategic success of the allies in cutting off Attila from Orleans. The battle was fought when he was in full retreat, and its value lay in damaging his prestige as an invincible conqueror, in weakening his forces, and in hindering him from extending the range of his ravages.^[7]

Contributing to the Battle's fearsome reputation through the ages are the terrible losses suffered by both sides, as well as the notoriety of Attila himself—the self-called "scourge of God"—and the fact that the battle ended his reputation as undefeatable. Considering the extravagant totals for casualties, Gibbon remarked that they "suppose a real and effective loss, sufficient to justify the historian's remark that whole generations may be swept away by the madness of kings in a single hour".^[8]

The Battle of Toulouse

Main article: Battle of Toulouse (721)

The battle of Toulouse was fought in the context of the Umayyad conquest of Europe. Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, wali of Al-Andalus, had assembled a formidable army in order to continue Umayyad expansion northwards. From his base in Narbonne, he deployed an army which laid siege to the city of Toulouse. With Narbonne and its port secure, al-Samh ibn Malik, Emir of al-Andalus, moved swiftly to subdue the surrounding area, taking Alet, south of Carcassonne, and Béziers, Agde, Lodève, Maguelonne (Montpellier) and Nîmes in fairly quick succession. By 721, he was ready for a new, decisive and far-reaching campaign, which he intended to result ultimately in the conquest of the "Great Land" as Roman Gaul was called by the Umayyads. Combatants Aquitanians Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Odo of Aquitaine Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani The Battle of Toulouse (721) was a victory of a Frankish army led by Duke Odo of Aquitaine over an Umayyad army besieging the city of Toulouse, and led by the governor of Al-Andalus, Al... Age of the Caliphs The initial Muslim conquests (632-732) began after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and were marked by a century of rapid Arab expansion beyond the Arabian peninsula under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs, ending with the Battle of Tours— resulting in a vast Muslim... June 9 is the 160th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (161st in leap years), with 205 days remaining. ... Former Byzantine emperor Anastasius II leads a revolt against emperor Leo III Theuderic IV succeeds Chilperic II Battle of Toulouse - Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, the governor Muslim Spain (al-Andalus) is defeated by Duke Odo of Aquitaine preventing an Arab invasion of Gaul. ... New city flag (Occitan cross) Traditional coat of arms Motto: (Occitan: For Toulouse, always more) Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country France Region Midi-Pyrénées Department Haute-Garonne (31) Intercommunality Community of Agglomeration of Greater Toulouse Mayor Jean-Luc Moudenc  (UMP) (since 2004) City Statistics... Location Administration Capital Bordeaux Regional President Alain Rousset (PS) (since 1998) Départements Dordogne Gironde Landes Lot-et-Garonne Pyrénées-Atlantiques Arrondissements 18 Cantons 235 Communes 2,296 Statistics Land area1 41,309 km² Population (Ranked 6th)  - January 1, 2005 est. ... The Umayyad Dynasty (Arabic الأمويون / بنو أمية umawiyy; in Turkish, Emevi) was the first dynasty of caliphs of the Prophet Muhammad who were not closely related to Muhammad himself, though they were of the same Meccan tribe, the... Odo of Aquitaine (a. ... Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani (Arabic: السمح بن مالك الخولاني) was the Arab governor general of the Muslim occupied region of the Iberian Peninsula called Al-Andalus in the beginning of the 8th century. ... The Umayyad conquest of Hispania (711–718) commenced when an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Moors, the Muslim inhabitants of North and West Africa, invaded Visigothic Christian Hispania (Portugal and Spain) in the year 711 CE. Under the authority of the Umayyad caliph at Damascus, and led... Combatants Visigoths Muslim forces of the Ummayad Commanders Roderic Tariq ibn Ziyad Strength 20,000-30,000 7,000-9,000 Casualties Unknown Unknown The Battle of Guadalete took place July 19, 711, at the Guadalete River (or La Janda Lake) in the southern extreme of the Iberian peninsula. ... Combatants Aquitanians Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Odo of Aquitaine Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani The Battle of Toulouse (721) was a victory of a Frankish army led by Duke Odo of Aquitaine over an Umayyad army besieging the city of Toulouse, and led by the governor of Al-Andalus, Al... Combatants Kingdom of Asturias Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Pelayo of Asturias Munuza † Alqama † Strength 300[1] 800 Casualties 289 dead 600 dead The Battle of Covadonga was the first major victory by a Christian military force in Iberia following the Muslim Moors conquest of that region in 711. ... Combatants Carolingian Franks Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Charles Martel ‘Abd-al-Raḥmān al-Ghāfiqī† Strength Unknown, possibly 20,000 to 30,000 [1] Unknown, but the earliest Muslim sources, still after the era of the battle[2] mention a figure of 80,000. ... The Umayyad conquest of Hispania (711–718) commenced when an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Moors, the Muslim inhabitants of North and West Africa, invaded Visigothic Christian Hispania (Portugal and Spain) in the year 711 CE. Under the authority of the Umayyad caliph at Damascus, and led... Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani (Arabic: السمح بن مالك الخولاني) was the Arab governor general of the Muslim occupied region of the Iberian Peninsula called Al-Andalus in the beginning of the 8th century. ... Wali (Arabic ولي, plural Awliya أولياء, Persian/Turkish pronunciation Vali), is an Arabic word, meaning protector or guardian (most literally etymologically near one), also adopted in various other Islamic cultures. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... The Courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, one of the grandest architectural legacies of the Umayyads. ... Narbonne (Narbona in Catalan and in Occitan, commonly Narbo especially when referring to the Ancient Rome era) is a town and commune of southwestern France in the Languedoc-Roussillon région. ... A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by force or attrition, often accompanied by an assault. ... New city flag (Occitan cross) Traditional coat of arms Motto: (Occitan: For Toulouse, always more) Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country France Region Midi-Pyrénées Department Haute-Garonne (31) Intercommunality Community of Agglomeration of Greater Toulouse Mayor Jean-Luc Moudenc  (UMP) (since 2004) City Statistics...

This was raid, as some modern historians claim, no karr wa-farr (attack and withdraw) slash across southwestern France. Al-Samh's aim was to strike west, take the key Garonne River valley, capture Toulouse—then the capital of Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine—and open up a vast territory stretching all the way to the Atlantic and back south through Andalusia to the Mediterranean and the Maghrib.

According to Muslim histories of the period, Al-Samh evidently felt confident that, with Toulouse in his grip, he could repeat what he had done in Narbonne: Create by treaty a string of lslamo-Christian principalities, sealed in the usual way by marriage between the leading princes and families on both sides. But first he returned to al-Andalus to muster fresh troops. Reinforced, he crossed back into Occitania in early spring, 721, and immediately marched west toward Toulouse.

Al-Samh's army included siege engines, infantry, a few horsemen and numerous mercenaries, as well as the redoubtable Basque slingers. Toulouse was a big, well-defended city, whose walls had been consistently strengthened since Roman and Visigothic times, and Eudes wasted no time in leaving to gather help. The siege of Toulouse, with its near-impregnable walls, lasted until early summer. The defenders, short of provisions, were close to surrendering when, around June 9, 721, Eudes of Aquitaine returned at the head of a large force, hurled himself at al-Samh's rear and launched a highly successful encircling movement. A major, decisive battle ensued; on this, three major Muslim historians of the period agree: Ibn Hayyan (d. 1067), Ibn al-Athir (d. 1234) and al-Maqqari (d. 1632). June 9 is the 160th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (161st in leap years), with 205 days remaining. ... Former Byzantine emperor Anastasius II leads a revolt against emperor Leo III Theuderic IV succeeds Chilperic II Battle of Toulouse - Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, the governor Muslim Spain (al-Andalus) is defeated by Duke Odo of Aquitaine preventing an Arab invasion of Gaul. ...

These Muslim histories suggest that al-Samh fell into the classic trap of static warfare and had concentrated his entire potential against the walls of Toulouse. With too few horsemen—the extensive use of Arab and Berber cavalry in Europe came later in 732—he was unable to react fast enough to Eudes's charge, which completely engulfed him. Caught between the city's defenders and Eudes's men, al-Samh tried to break out, but was trapped with the bulk of his troops in a place called Balat (Plateau), where he made a determined last stand.

There are historians, such as the Toulouse historian Sydney Forado,[4] who believe the Battle of Toulouse halted the muslim conquest of Europe even more than the later—and more celebrated—Battle of Tours (October 10, 732, between Tours and Poitiers). Historians such as Sir Charles Oman argue however that even had the Arabs won at Toulouse, they still would have had to conquer the Franks to have retained control of the region.^[9] Other historians such as Paul K. Davis agree that the Christian victory at Toulouse was important in a macrohistorical sense; it gave Charles Martel badly needed time to strengthen his grip on power and build the veteran army which stood him in such good stead eleven years later at Tours. Davis said in 100 Decisive Battles "Having defeated Eudes, he turned to the Rhine to strengthen his northeastern borders - but in 725 was diverted south with the activity of the Muslims in Acquitane." Martel then concentrated his attention to the east, virtually for the remainder of his life. Combatants Carolingian Franks Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Charles Martel ‘Abd-al-Raḥmān al-Ghāfiqī† Strength Unknown, possibly 20,000 to 30,000 [1] Unknown, but the earliest Muslim sources, still after the era of the battle[2] mention a figure of 80,000. ... October 10 is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years). ... Events October 10 - Battle of Tours: Near Poitiers, France, leader of the Franks Charles Martel and his men, defeat a large army of Moors, stopping the Muslims from spreading into Western Europe. ... Tours is a city in France, the préfecture (capital city) of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. ... Location within France Poitiers (population 85,000) is a small city located in west central France. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary. ...

His controversial seizure of church property to buy supporters, secure power, settle his northern frontier by any means necessary, including bribes in some cases, allowed him to fund his army and prepare for the coming danger. This earned great enmity from the Church at the time, but after Tours, Rome swiftly saw the necessity of the Frankish Army. Without his veteran Frankish Army, Martel could not have prevailed at Tours, where his veterans accomplished what was thought impossible—infantry withstanding armoured cavalry without firearms or even longbows. The eleven years between Toulouse and Tours without question gave him time to fully secure power, inspire the loyalty of his troops, and most importantly, drill the core of veterans who stood so stoutly in 732.

While Eudes faded into history after his horrific defeat at Bordeaux, the Battle of Toulouse carries macrohistorical importance as it bought time for Martel to prepare for the greater invasion mounted by Abd al Rahman in 732. Ironically, while Eudes is forgotten, Martel became hailed as the savior of Europe, and of the Church itself. While both are debatable, these events and Martel's later campaigns against the Muslims in 736-7 almost certainly assured the development of Europe and the Catholic Church as we know them today. World map showing the location of Europe. ... The name Catholic Church can mean a visible organization that refers to itself as Catholic, or the invisible Christian Church, viz. ...

The Battle of Tours

Main article: Battle of Tours

Charles de Steuben's Bataille de Poitiers en Octobre 732 depicts a triumphant Charles Martel (mounted) facing ‘Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi (right) at the Battle of Tours

In 732, the Emir of Al-Andulas returned with a veteran army, which swept north to face the hero of the Battle of Toulouse first. Eleven years after that glorious victory, duke Eudes once more stood against the invading Muslims in the Battle of the River Garonne—nevertheless, this time his forces were literally exterminated by the Arab troops, and the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754 commented "solus Deus numerum morientium vel pereuntium recognoscat" (God alone knows the number of the slain). Whereas eleven years earlier, Eudes had not had to face the dreaded Arab heavy cavalry, this time he did—and the result was catastrophic. Eudes himself managed to escape and fled to Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace, and de facto ruler of the Frankish realm, agreed to help him in return for an oath of fealty. When the Frankish ruler got wind that the Umayyads were planning to storm the city of Tours and loot the Abbey of Saint Martin of Tours, then the holiest and richest shrine of Europe, he put together an army of about 20,000 veteran infantry and 1,000 cavalry and marched to meet Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, whose forces numbered about 80,000 men, mostly cavalry. Duke Eudes, and what remained of his forces, joined Martel and fought on his left flank. Combatants Carolingian Franks Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Charles Martel ‘Abd-al-Raḥmān al-Ghāfiqī† Strength Unknown, possibly 20,000 to 30,000 [1] Unknown, but the earliest Muslim sources, still after the era of the battle[2] mention a figure of 80,000. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (800x680, 986 KB) Summary Charles de Steuben, Bataille de Poitiers, en octobre 732, oil on canvas, 5,42 m x 4,65 m, painted between 1834 and 1837, today Musée du château de Versailles, France. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (800x680, 986 KB) Summary Charles de Steuben, Bataille de Poitiers, en octobre 732, oil on canvas, 5,42 m x 4,65 m, painted between 1834 and 1837, today Musée du château de Versailles, France. ... Bataille de Poitiers, en octobre 732 (ca. ... For the 13th century titular King of Hungary, see Charles Martel dAnjou. ... For indivduals with the same or similar name, see Abd-ar-Rahman Abu Said Abdul Rahman ibn Abdullah ibn Bishr ibn Al Sarem Al Aki Al Ghafiqi (? – 732), variously known as Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, Abd er Rahman, Abdderrahman, Abderame, and Abd el-Rahman, led the Andalusian Muslims into battle... There have been two battles known as the Battle of Toulouse: Battle of Toulouse (721) during the Arabic Invasions of Europe Battle of Toulouse (1814) during the Napoleonic Wars This is a disambiguation page — a list of articles associated with the same title. ... The Chronicle of 754 (or Continuatio Hispana) was a Latin-language history composed in the year 754 by a Christian Mozarab chronicler in Spain. ... For the 13th century titular King of Hungary, see Charles Martel dAnjou. ... An oath (from Old Saxon eoth) is either a promise or a statement of fact calling upon something or someone that the oath maker considers sacred, usually a god, as a witness to the binding nature of the promise or the truth of the statement of fact. ... Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ... Tours is a city in France, the préfecture (capital city) of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. ... For indivduals with the same or similar name, see Abd-ar-Rahman Abu Said Abdul Rahman ibn Abdullah ibn Bishr ibn Al Sarem Al Aki Al Ghafiqi (? – 732), variously known as Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, Abd er Rahman, Abdderrahman, Abderame, and Abd el-Rahman, led the Andalusian Muslims into battle...

The two armies engaged at the point where the rivers Vienne and Clain join, between Tours and Poitiers, in October 10, 732. The Frankish army took up a phalanx formation and was able to withstand the numerous Islamic cavalry charges. Although the Muslim cavalry was able to pierce the Franks' defensive formation, the Franks never broke, and at the height of the fighting, scouts sent by Martel to raid the Muslim camp in hopes of drawing off part of their forces succeeded beyond their wildest dreams. Part of the Umayyad forces headed back to camp to secure their loot, and soon the remaining Umayyad troops began a full-scale retreat. Panic spread amongst the Umayyad lines and the situation soon turned into a real chaotic retreat of the Islamic troops. The Frankish cavalry was able to take advantage of this disorganisation and struck down a great number of invaders, amongst them the commander Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. The Vienne River is a river in France. ... Clain is a river in western France. ... Tours is a city in France, the préfecture (capital city) of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. ... Location within France Poitiers (population 85,000) is a small city located in west central France. ... October 10 is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years). ... Events October 10 - Battle of Tours: Near Poitiers, France, leader of the Franks Charles Martel and his men, defeat a large army of Moors, stopping the Muslims from spreading into Western Europe. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Many historians agree that this is the most important battle in the history of Europe as we know it. The great British military historian Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy regarded it as momentous: The Treaty of Rome signing ceremony This article gives an account of the history of the continent of Europe. ... Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy (1812 – 1878), historian, was educated at Eton College and Cambridge University and called to the Bar in 1837. ...

"It was under one of their ablest and most renowned commanders, with a veteran army, and with every apparent advantage of time, place, and circumstance, that the Arabs made their great effort at the conquest of Europe north of the Pyrenees."[5]

—Edward Shepherd Creasy, The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy (1812 - 1878), historian, was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and called to the Bar in 1837. ... The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo is a book written by Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy and published in 1851. ...

The German military historian Hans Delbruck said of this battle "there was no more important battle in the history of the world."^[10] Edward Gibbon, John B. Bury and Norman Cantor, among others, have named this as the most macrohistorically important battle of (Christian) Europe. Several historians have noted its significance: Hans Delbrück. ... Edward Gibbon (1737–1794). ... John Bagnell Bury (16 October 1861 – 1 June 1927) was an eminent British historian, classical scholar, and philologist. ... Norman F. Cantor (born in Winnipeg, Canada on November 19, 1929, died in Miami, Florida, United States on September 18, 2004) was a historian who specialized in the medieval period. ...

• John Henry Haaren: "The battle of Tours, or Poitiers, as it should be called, is regarded as one of the decisive battles of the world. It decided that Christians, and not Moslems, should be the ruling power in Europe".
• Robert W. Martin: "[The battle of Tours was] one of the most decisive battles in all of history".
• Bernard Grun in his "Timetables of History," reissued in 2004: "In 732 Charles Martel's victory over the Arabs at the Battle of Tours stems the tide of their westward advance.”^[11]
• Edward Gibbon: "The establishment of Frankish power in western Europe shaped that continent's destiny and the Battle of Tours confirmed that power".
• Godefroid Kurth, who wrote that the Battle of Tours-Poitiers "must ever remain one of the great events in the history of the world, as upon its issue depended whether Christian Civilization should continue or Islam prevail throughout Europe."
• Huston Smith: "But for their defeat by Charles Martel in the Battle of Tours in 733, the entire Western world might today be Muslim".

In those historians' view, had the Frankish kingdom fallen, it is doubtful that the rest of Europe—divided into little, squabbling states—could have resisted the Muslim expansion. John Henry Haaren (1855 – 1916) was an American historian. ... Edward Gibbon (1737–1794). ... Godefroid Kurth (11 May 1847 - 4 January 1916) was a celebrated Belgian historian. ... Huston Cummings Smith (born May 31, 1919) is among the preeminent religious studies scholars in the United States. ...

H.G. Wells in his "A Short History of the World" lavishes praise on Martel in Chapter XLV, "The Development of Latin Christendom":

"The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this Frankish kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel, the Mayor of the Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis, and experienced the decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his hands. This Charles Martel was practically overlord of Europe north of the Alps from the Pyrenees to Hungary. He ruled over a multitude of subordinate lords speaking French-Latin, and High and Low German languages."

Other historians, such as William Watson and Antonio Santosuosso agree that the Battle was of macrohistorical importance as it brought the powerful Frankish army into the conflict, but are more nuanced in their interpretation of the battle's place in history; Watson writes: William Watson may be any of: William Watson (basketball) of the twentieth century William Watson (chess) of the twentieth century William Watson (poet), around 1900 William Watson (politician) of the twentieth century William Watson (priest) of the sixteenth century William Watson (scientist) of the eighteenth century William Watson (businessman), Canadian... Antonio Santosuosso (born 1936) is a Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario. ...

"There is clearly some justification for ranking Tours-Poitiers among the most significant events in Frankish history when one considers the result of the battle in light of the remarkable record of the successful establishment by Muslims of Islamic political and cultural dominance along the entire eastern and southern rim of the former Christian, Roman world. The rapid Muslim conquest of Palestine, Syria, Egypt and the North African coast all the way to Morocco in the seventh century resulted in the permanent imposition by force of Islamic culture onto a previously Christian and largely non-Arab base. The Visigothic kingdom fell to Muslim conquerors in a single battle on the Rio Barbate in 711, and the Hispanic Christian population took seven long centuries to regain control of the Iberian peninsula. The Reconquista, of course, was completed in 1492, only months before Columbus received official backing for his fateful voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. Had Charles Martel suffered at Tours-Poitiers the fate of King Roderick at the Rio Barbate, it is doubtful that a "do-nothing" sovereign of the Merovingian realm could have later succeeded where his talented major domus had failed. Indeed, as Charles was the progenitor of the Carolingian line of Frankish rulers and grandfather of Charlemagne, one can even say with a degree of certainty that the subsequent history of the West would have proceeded along vastly different currents had ‘Abd ar-Rahman been victorious at Tours-Poitiers in 732."^[12]

Indeed, lands such as Great Britain or the Teutonic territories were far weaker than the Franks, both in military and in political terms, and it is difficult to imagine what population in Europe could have resisted the Islamic conquest. Military Historian Victor Davis Hanson says: The term Germanic peoples may refer to: the Germanic tribes that in the first millennium were seen as a barbarian threat by the Roman Empire and its successors; the Germanic Christianity that in the second millennium came to dominate much of Northern Europe, politically organized in the Holy Roman Empire...

"What is clear is that Poitiers marked a general continuance of the successful western defense of Europe. Flush from his victory at Poitiers, Charles went on to clear southern France from Islamic invaders for decades, unify the warring kingdoms into the foundation of the Carolingian Empire, and ensure ready and available troops from local estates."^[13]

Sir Edward Creasy wrote "Martel's victory rescued Christendom from Islam, preserved the relics of ancient and the germs of modern civilization." Dexter Wakefield says "European schoolchildren learn about the Battle of Tours in much the same way that American students learn about Valley Forge and Gettysburg." It decided, as Creasy said, "the fate of nations."

However, there is a school of thought which disagrees with the view that this battle decided "the fate of nations." Tomaz Mastnak, in Crusading Peace: Christendom, the Muslim World, and Western Political Order presents a completely different view:

"Modern historians have constructed a myth presenting this victory as having saved Christian Europe from the Muslims. Edward Gibbon, for example, called Charles Martel the savior of Christendom and the battle near Poitiers an encounter that changed the history of the world... This myth has survived well into our own times... Contemporaries of the battle, however, did not overstate its significance. The continuators of Fredegar's chronicle, who probably wrote in the mid-eighth century, pictured the battle as just one of many military encounters between Christians and Saracens—moreover, as only one in a series of wars fought by Frankish princes for booty and territory... One of Fredegar's continuators presented the battle of Poitiers as what it really was: an episode in the struggle between Christian princes as the Carolingians strove to bring Aquitaine under their rule.^[14]

The Battle of Lepanto

Main article: Battle of Lepanto (1571)

The Battle of Lepanto by Paolo Veronese. Oil on canvas

The Battle of Lepanto (Ναύπακτος in Greek, İnebahtı in Turkish) took place on 7 October 1571 when a galley fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Venice, the Papacy (under Pope Pius V), Spain, Republic of Genoa, Duchy of Savoy, the Knights of Malta and others, defeated a force of Ottoman galleys. The 5-hour battle was fought at the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece, where the Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina, in the morning of Sunday 7 October.^[15] It was the final major naval battle in world history solely between rowing vessels, and it marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman supremacy in the Mediterranean.[6] // Combatants Holy League: Republic of Venice Spain Papal States Republic of Genoa Duchy of Savoy Knights of Malta Ottoman Empire Commanders Don John of Austria Ali Pasha † Strength 206 galleys, 6 galleasses 230 galleys, 56 galliots Casualties 9,000 dead or wounded, 12 galleys lost 30,000 dead or wounded... Download high resolution version (706x910, 171 KB)Template:English The Battle of Lepanto by Paolo Veronese. ... Download high resolution version (706x910, 171 KB)Template:English The Battle of Lepanto by Paolo Veronese. ... The Feast in the House of Levi (1573), one of the largest canvases of the 16th century. ... October 7 is the 280th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (281st in leap years). ... Events January 11 - Austrian nobility is granted Freedom of religion. ... A French galley and Dutch men-of-war off a port by Abraham Willaerts, painted 17th century. ... The Holy League was formed between several Catholic maritime states in the Mediterranean in 1571 in attempt to break Ottoman Turks control of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. ... Borders of the Republic of Venice in 1796 Capital Venice Language(s) Italian, Latin Religion Roman Catholic Government Republic Doge  - 1789-1797 Ludovico Manin History  - Established 727 (697)  - Treaty of Zara June 27, 1358  - Treaty of Leoben April 17, 1797 Map of the Venetian Republic, circa 1000. ... The Pope (or Pope of Rome) (from Latin: papa, Papa, father; from Greek: papas / = priest originating from πατήρ = father )[1] is the Bishop of Rome, the spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic Church and the absolute monarch of Vatican City. ... Saint Pius V, né Antonio Ghislieri, from 1518 called Michele Ghislieri (January 17, 1504 – May 1, 1572) was pope from 1566 to 1572 and is a saint of the Catholic Church. ... The Republic of Genoa, in full the Most Serene Republic of Genoa (known as the Ligurian Republic from 1798 to 1805) was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from ca. ... For the earlier history of Savoy, see County of Savoy. ... The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Order of Saint John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta, Knights of Malta, Knights of Rhodes, and Chevaliers of Malta) is an organization that began as an Amalfitan hospital founded in Jerusalem in 1080 to provide care for poor and sick... Motto دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital Söğüt (1299–1326) Bursa (1326–65) Edirne (1365–1453) Constantinople (Ä°stanbul, 1453–1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy Sultans  - 1281–1326 Osman I  - 1918–22 Mehmed VI... Gulf of Patras from space, March 1994 The Gulf of Patras (Greek: Πατραϊκός Κόλπος Patraikós Kólpos) is a branch of the Ionian Sea. ... Naupactus or Nafpaktos (Latin: Naupactus or Naupactos; Turkish: Ä°nebahtı; Italian, Spanish and Portuguese Lepanto; modern Greek, Ναύπακτος, rarely Epakto), is a town in the prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania, Greece, situated on a bay on the north side of the straits of Lepanto. ... Location within Italy Messina with a population of about 260,000 is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, Italy and the capital of the province of Messina. ... October 7 is the 280th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (281st in leap years). ... The French battleship Orient burns, 1 August 1798, during the Battle of the Nile A naval battle is a battle fought using ships or other waterborne vessels. ...

The Holy League's fleet consisted of 206 galleys and six galleasses (large converted merchant galleys carrying substantial artillery), and was ably commanded by Don John (or Don Juan) of Austria, the illegitimate son of Emperor Charles V and halfbrother of King Philip II of Spain. Vessels had been contributed by the various Christian states: 109 galleys and six galleasses from Venice, 80 galleys from Spain and Naples/Sicily, 12 Tuscan galleys hired by the Papal States, three galleys each from Genoa, Malta, and Savoy, and several privately owned galleys. All members of the alliance viewed the Turkish navy as a significant threat to their maritime trade in the Mediterranean Sea and were determined to put an end to it. The various Christian contingents met the main force, that of Venice (under Veniero), in July and August 1571 at Messina, Sicily. Don John arrived on 23 August. A French galley and Dutch men-of-war off a port by Abraham Willaerts, painted 17th century. ... Artillery with Gabion fortification Cannons on display at Fort Point Continental Artillery crew from the American Revolution Firing of an 18-pound gun, Louis-Philippe Crepin, (1772 – 1851) A forge-welded Iron Cannon in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. ... The tomb of Don Juan de Austria in San Lorenzo de El Escorial Don John of Austria (February 24, 1547 - October 1, 1578), also known as Juan de Austria and Don Juan de Austria, was an illegitimate son of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. ... // Illegitimacy is a term that was once in common use for the status of being born to parents who were not validly married to one another. ... Charles V (24 February 1500 - 21 September 1558) was ruler of the Burgundian territories (1506-1555), King of Spain (1516-1556), King of Naples and Sicily (1516-1554), Archduke of Austria (1519-1521), King of the Romans (or German King), (1519-1556 but did not formally abdicate until 1558) and... Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II de Habsburgo; Portuguese: Filipe I) (May 21, 1527 – September 13, 1598) was the first official King of Spain from 1556 until 1598, King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until 1598, King of England (as King-consort of Mary I) from 1554 to 1558, King... Venice (Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venezsia) is the capital of region Veneto, and has a population of 271,663 (census estimate January 1, 2004). ... Tuscany (Italian: ) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. ... Coat of arms Map of the Papal States; the reddish area was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1860, the rest (grey) in 1870. ... Genoa (Genova [] in Italian - Zena [] in Genoese) is a city and a seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria. ... Flag of Savoy This article is about the historical region of Savoy. ... Composite satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea. ... Sebastiano Venier. ... Messina, Italy Strait of Messina, Italy. ... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ... August 23 is the 235th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (236th in leap years), with 130 days remaining. ...

This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 12,920 sailors and 43,000 rowers. In addition, it carried almost 28,000 fighting troops: 10,000 Spanish regular infantry of superior quality, 7,000 German and 6,000 Italian mercenary contingents from the various Habsburg dominions, and 5,000 others. There were also a large number of volunteers from all of Christian Europe. A mercenary, is a person who takes part in an armed conflict and is motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain and, in fact, is promised, by or on behalf of a Party to the conflict, material compensation substantially in excess of that...

Ali Pasha (Turkish: "Kaptan-ı Derya Ali Paşa"), supported by the corsairs Chulouk Bey of Alexandria and Uluj Ali (Uluch Ali), commanded an Ottoman force of 216 galleys, 56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors, but were somewhat deficient in soldiers, having only 25,000 of them, including only 2,500 Janissaries, who at that time were the only warriors equal to the Spanish infantry in the world. Some naval historians argue that this shortage of first-rate infantry was one of the decisive factors in the Ottoman defeat at Lepanto, especially in that it led to the capture and execution of Ali Pasha.^[16] Others consider that the main difference between the two sides was primarily the presence of the larger, longer-ranged broadside cannon on the Venetian galleases. The thick armour of the Spanish infantry and the large number of Muslim archers are also considered to have been important. Certainly the few galleases had an influence out of proportion to their number and only a few prominent Christians were lost to arrows. Also, Ali Pasha - Commander of Ottoman Turkish naval forces at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). ... Alexandria (Greek: , Coptic: , Arabic: , Egyptian Arabic: Iskindireyya), (population of 3. ... Ulaj Ali (also, Uluj or Uluj, in Turkish: Uluç Ali Pasha) - 16th century Muslim Ottoman admiral and privateer. ... A French galley and Dutch men-of-war off a port by Abraham Willaerts, painted 17th century. ... The Janissaries comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultans household troops and bodyguard. ... A small cannon on a carriage, Bucharest. ... Armour sucks ass alottttttttttt Armour was also commonly used to protect war animals, such as war horses and elephants. ... It has been suggested that Primitive Archery be merged into this article or section. ...

One of the better-known participants in the battle was Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, who was wounded in the battle and effectively lost the use of his left hand. Several years later he was captured by the Turkish corsairs and spent five years in captivity as a slave in Algiers before being ransomed by the Trinitarian Order. This episode of his life is believed to be referenced in his masterpiece, Don Quixote (First Part, Chapters XXXIX-XLI). Don Miguel de Cervantes y Saavedra (IPA: . September 29, 1547 – April 23, 1616) was a Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... Wiktionary has related dictionary definitions, such as: slave Slave may refer to: Slavery, where people are owned by others, and live to serve their owners without pay Slave (BDSM), a form of sexual and consenual submission Slave clock, in technology, a clock or timer that synchrnonizes to a master clock... “Alger” redirects here. ... The Trinitarians are an order of monks founded at Rome in 1198 by St. ... (IPA: , but see spelling and pronunciation below), fully titled (The Ingenious Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha) is an early novel written by Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. ...

The Turkish fleet suffered the loss of approximately 210 ships—of which 130 vessels, 117 galleys, 10 galliots and three fustas were captured, and in good enough condition for the Christians to keep. On the Christian side 20 galleys were destroyed and 30 were damaged so seriously that they had to be scuttled. One Venetian galley was the only one kept by the Turks. All others were abandoned by them and recaptured.

Uluj Ali, who had captured the flagship of the Maltese Knights, succeeded in extricating most of his ships from the battle when defeat was certain. Although he had cut the tow on the Maltese flagship in order to get away, he sailed to Istanbul, gathering up other Ottoman ships along the way and finally arriving there with 87 vessels. He presented the huge Maltese flag to Sultan Selim who thereupon bestowed upon him the honorary title of "kιlιç" (Sword); Uluj thus became known as Kιlιç Ali Pasha. Kılıç Ali PaÅŸa Statue of Kılıç Ali PaÅŸa Uluj Ali (Turkish: Uluç Ali Reis and later Kılıç Ali PaÅŸa) was a Muslim corsair and Ottoman admiral in the 16th century. ...

The Holy League had suffered around 13,000 soldiers, sailors and rowers dead, but freed about as many Christian prisoners. Turkish casualties were around 25,000, and at least 3,500 were captured. The Holy League credited the victory to the Virgin Mary, whose intercession with God they had implored for victory through the use of the Rosary. Pius V instituted a new Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is now celebrated by the Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary. [7] Andrea Doria had kept a copy of the miraculous image of our Our Lady of Guadeloupe given to him by King Philip II of Spain in his ship's state room.^[17] Our Lady of Lourdes - Mary appearing at Lourdes with Rosary beads. ... Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II de Habsburgo; Portuguese: Filipe I) (May 21, 1527 – September 13, 1598) was the first official King of Spain from 1556 until 1598, King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until 1598, King of England (as King-consort of Mary I) from 1554 to 1558, King...

This battle was a crushing defeat for the Ottomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the fifteenth century. To most of Christendom, this event encouraged hope for the downfall of "the Turk", whom they regarded as the "Sempiternal Enemy of the Christian". Indeed, the Empire lost all but 30 of its ships and as many as 30,000 men, and some Western historians have held it to be the most decisive naval battle anywhere on the globe since the Battle of Actium of 31 BC. Historian Victor Davis Hanson said: Combatants Octavian Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII of Egypt Commanders Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Mark Antony Strength 260 warships, mostly liburnian vessels 220 warships, mostly quinqueremes and 60 egyptian warships Casualties Unknown Almost all of Antonys fleet The Battle of Actium was a naval battle of the Roman Civil War between... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC...

"To sixteenth century Christians, the sudden muster and vast size of the Christian fleet at Lepanto were proof of Christ to resist the Muslim onslaught." .^[18]

Despite the massive defeat, however, the Holy League's inability to stay united prevented the victors from capitalizing on their triumph. Plans to seize the Dardanelles as a step towards recovering Istanbul formerly Constantinople, for Christendom, were ruined by bickering amongst the allies. [8] With a massive effort, the Ottoman Empire rebuilt its navy, adding eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean. Within six months this new fleet was able to reassert Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean. On 7 March 1573 the Venetians thus recognized by treaty the Ottoman possession of Cyprus, which had fallen to the Turks under Piyale Pasha on 3 August 1571, just two months before Lepanto, and remained Turkish for the next three centuries, and that summer the Ottoman navy ravaged the geographically vulnerable coasts of Sicily and southern Italy. A Turkish Grand Vizier famously said "In wresting Cyprus from you we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor." Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural and financial center. ... Map of Constantinople. ... March 7 is the 66th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (67th in leap years). ... Year 1573 was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Piyale Pasha (circa 1515-1578), also known as Piale Pasha in the West or Pialí Bajá in Spain (Turkish: Piyale Paşa), was an Ottoman-Turkish admiral between 1553 and 1567 and a high ranking Ottoman Vizier after 1568. ... August 3 is the 215th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (216th in leap years), with 150 days remaining. ... Events January 11 - Austrian nobility is granted Freedom of religion. ...

In 1574 the Ottomans retook the strategic city of Tunis from the Spanish supported Hafsid dynasty, that had been re-installed when Don Juan's forces reconquered the city from the Ottomans the year before. With their long-standing alliance with the French coming into play they were able to resume naval activity in the western Mediterranean. In 1579 the capture of Fez completed Ottoman conquests in Morocco that had begun under Süleyman the Magnificent. The establishment of Ottoman suzerainty over the area placed the entire coast of the Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltar to Croatia and Slovenia (with the exceptions of the Spanish controlled trading city of Oran and strategic settlements such as Melilla and Ceuta)—under Ottoman authority. However the loss of so many of its experienced sailors at Lepanto sapped the fighting effectiveness of the Ottoman navy, a fact underlined by their minimizing confrontations with Christian navies in the years immediately after. Historian Paul K. Davis said: Hafsid dynasty in Ifriqiya (1229-1574) Significant Rulers: Abu Zakariyya Yahya I. (1229-1249) Muhammad I. al-Mustansir (1249-1277) Yahya II. al-Watiq (1277-1279) Ibrahim I. (1279-1283) Ibn Abi Umara (1283-1284) Abu Hafs Umar I. (1284-1295) Abu Bakr II. (1318-1346) Ishaq II. (1350-1369... Bab Bou Jeloud, gate to the Old Medina of Fes Leather dyeing vats in Fes For specific travel tips, see the entry on Fez at http://wikitravel. ... Suleyman I (Ottoman Turkish: Sulaymān, Turkish: ; formally Kanuni Sultan Süleyman in Turkish) (November 6, 1494 – September 5/6, 1566), was the tenth and longest-serving Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1520 to 1566. ... Suzerainty refers to a situation in which a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which allows the tributary some limited domestic autonomy but controls its foreign affairs. ... View of Oran Oran (Arabic: , pronounced Wahran) is a city in northwestern Algeria, situated on the Mediterranean coast. ...  Spain Area  â€“ Total    20 km² (8 mi²) Population  â€“ Total (2006)  â€“ Density  66,871  3,343. ... Area  â€“ Total   28 km² Population  â€“ Total (2005)  â€“ Density  75,276  2688. ...

"This Turkish defeat stopped Turkey's expansion into the Mediterranean, thus maintaining western dominance, and confidence grew in the west that Turks, previously unstoppable, could be beaten."^[2]

Thus, this victory for the Holy League was primarily important not because the Turks lost 80 ships sunk and 130 captured by the allies, and 30,000 men killed (not including 12,000 Christian galley slaves, who were freed; allied losses were 7,500 men and 17 galleys), but because this was a victory which heralded the end of Turkish supremacy in the Mediterranean.[9]

The Battle of Vienna

Main article: Battle of Vienna

Sobieski at Vienna by Juliusz Kossak (1824 - 1899)

The battle of Vienna is chronologically the last of these battles. During the Great Turkish War, the Ottoman Empire had managed to capture most if not all of eastern Europe and Turkish forces fought their way to the gates of Vienna. Because of its strategic position in both fluvial (through the Danube) and land trade, the Ottoman commanders wanted to assume control of the city as soon as possible. Instead of opting for an all-out attack—with good prospects for success, since the Ottoman soldiers greatly outnumbered Austrian defenders—grand vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha decided to lay siege on the city, in order to capture it with the minimal possible amount of damage. What the Ottomans did not take into account however was that time was not on their side. Their lack of urgency at this point, combined with the delay in advancing their army after declaring war, eventually allowed a relief force to arrive. Historians have speculated that Kara Mustafa wanted to take the city intact for its riches, which by Ottoman tradition went to him in the event of a surrender, and declined an all-out attack in order to prevent the right of plunder which would accompany such an assault.^[19] // For siege of Vienna in 1529 see Siege of Vienna Combatants Holy League: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Austria, Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria Ottoman Empire, Khanate of Crimea, Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia Commanders John III Sobieski, Charles V of Lorraine Kara Mustafa Pasha Strength 70,000, (10,000 during siege) 138,000, (200... Image File history File linksMetadata Juliusz_Kossak_Sobieski_pod_Wiedniem. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Juliusz_Kossak_Sobieski_pod_Wiedniem. ... Juliusz Fortunat Kossak (December 15, 1824 - February 3, 1899) was a Polish painter. ... The Great Turkish War was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers at the time (joined into a Holy League) during the second half of the 17th century. ... Motto دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital Söğüt (1299–1326) Bursa (1326–65) Edirne (1365–1453) Constantinople (Ä°stanbul, 1453–1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy Sultans  - 1281–1326 Osman I  - 1918–22 Mehmed VI... Vienna (German: , see also other names) is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ... The Danube (ancient Danuvius, Iranian *dānu, meaning river or stream, ancient Greek Istros) is the longest river in the European Union and Europes second longest river. ... A Vizier (وزير, sometimes also spelled Wazir) is an Arabic term for a high-ranking religious and political advisor, often to a king or sultan. ... Headstone of Kara Mustafa, Edirne, Turkey Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha (1634/1635 – December 25, 1683) was an Ottoman military leader and vizier who was a central character in the empires last attempts at expansion into central and eastern Europe. ...

The Ottoman siege cut virtually every means of food supply into Vienna,^[20] and the garrison and civilian volunteers suffered extreme casualties. Fatigue became such a problem that Graf Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg ordered any soldier found asleep on watch to be shot. Increasingly desperate, the forces holding Vienna were on their last legs when in August, Imperial forces under Charles V, Duke of Lorraine beat Imre Thököly of Hungary at Bisamberg, 5km northeast of Vienna. Charles Léopold Nicolas Sixte (April 3, 1643 – April 18, 1690), was the titular Duke of Lorraine from 1675 to 1690, a time when Lorraine was occupied by France. ... Count Imre Thököly de Késmárk (Thököly/Tököly/Tökölli Imre in Hungarian; Imrich Tököli in Slovak; Emericq Thököly according to his most frequent signature) (1657-1705), statesman, leader of an anti-Habsburg uprising, prince of Transylvania. ...

On 6 September, the Poles crossed the Danube 30km north west of Vienna at Tulln, to unite with the Imperial forces and additional troops from Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, Franconia and Swabia who had answered the call for a Holy League that was supported by Pope Innocent XI. Only Louis XIV of France, Habsburg's rival, not only declined to help, but used the opportunity to attack cities in Alsace and other parts of southern Germany, as in the Thirty Years' War decades earlier. Tulln (full name: Tulln an der Donau, Tulln on the Danube) is a town in the Austrian state of Lower Austria, and the seat of the Tulln district. ... The Free State of Saxony (German: Freistaat Sachsen; Sorbian: Swobodny Stat Sakska) is the easternmost federal state of Germany. ... The geographic region and Free State of Bavaria (German:  ), with an area of 70,553 km² (27,241 square miles) and 12. ... Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. ... Franconia (German: Franken) is a historic region in modern Germany, which today forms three administrative regions of the German federal state of Bavaria: Lower Franconia (Unterfranken), Middle Franconia (Mittelfranken), and Upper Franconia (Oberfranken). ... Germany. ... During the course of the Ottoman wars in Europe, the War of the Holy League (1682 - 1699) was marked by the rise of a new Holy League initiated by Pope Innocent XI and composed of the Holy Roman Empire (headed by Habsburg Austria), the Venetian Republic and Poland in 1684... The Blessed Innocent XI, né Benedetto Odescalchi (May 16, 1611 – August 12, 1689) was pope from 1676 to 1689. ... “Sun King” redirects here. ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ... (New région flag) (Region logo) Location Administration Capital Strasbourg Regional President Adrien Zeller (UMP) (since 1996) Departments Bas-Rhin Haut-Rhin Arrondissements 13 Cantons 75 Communes 903 Statistics Land area1 8,280 km² Population (Ranked 14th)  - January 1, 2006 est. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

On September 11, 1683, John Sobieski and his ally Charles V of Lorraine arrived and immediately attacked the Turkish troops, relieving the siege on Vienna, which at that point was on the verge of falling into Ottoman hands. A combined charge of four Holy League cavalry groups and 3,000 heavily armed winged Polish lancer hussars broke the Turkish lines. Less than three hours after this charge, the Ottoman troops were forced to retreat and the Christian forces saved Vienna from capture. The Catholic Encyclopedia says of this battle: [10] September 11 is the 254th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (255th in leap years). ... Events June 6 - The Ashmolean Museum opens as the worlds first university museum. ... Reign From May 21, 1674, until June 17, 1696 Elected On May 21, 1674 in Wola, today suburb of Warsaw, Poland Coronation On February 2, 1676 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Nobel Family Sobieski Coat of Arms Janina Parents Jakub Sobieski Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz Consorts Marie... Charles Léopold Nicolas Sixte (April 3, 1643 – April 18, 1690), was the titular Duke of Lorraine from 1675 to 1690, a time when Lorraine was occupied by France. ... Throughout history there have been many alliances and organizations known as the Catholic League, including: Catholic League (USA) - Civil rights group in the United States. ...

"On 11 Sept., Sobieski was on the heights of Kahlenberg, near the city, and the next day he gave battle in the plain below, with an army of not more than 76,000 men, the German forming the left wing and the Pole under Hetmans Jahonowski and Sieniawski, with General Katski in command of the artillery, forming the right. The hussars charged with their usual impetuosity, but the dense masses of the foe were impenetrable. Their retreat was taken for flight by the Turks, who rushed forward in pursuit; the hussars turned upon them with reinforcements and charged again, when their shouts made known that the "Northern Lion" was on the field and the Turks fled, panic-stricken, with Sobieski's horsemen still in pursuit."

Although no one realized it at the time, the battle shaped the outcome of the entire war as well. The Ottomans fought on for another 16 years, losing control of Hungary and Transylvania in the process, before finally giving up. The end of the conflict was finalized by the Treaty of Karlowitz. The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in 1699 in Sremski Karlovci (a city in modern-day Serbia and Montenegro) (German: Karlowitz, Turkish:Karlofça), concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683–1697 in which the Ottoman side was defeated. ...

The battle of Vienna is seen by many historians as marking the beginning of the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The battle also marked the historic end of Turkish expansion into southeastern Europe, therefore preventing Ottoman domination of the continent. The Holy League, created by several Christian states to fight the common Turkish enemy, is an example of how the European powers formed alliances when common traditions and values were at stake; some have commented that the situation was similar to the Crusades, but on this occasion, the "Crusade" was taking place in the very heart of Europe. Throughout history there have been many alliances and organizations known as the Catholic League, including: Catholic League (USA) - Civil rights group in the United States. ... The Siege of Antioch, from a medieval miniature painting, during the First Crusade. ...

Notes

For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... August 28 is the 240th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (241st in leap years), with 125 days remaining. ... For the Manfred Mann album, see 2006 (album). ... August 28 is the 240th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (241st in leap years), with 125 days remaining. ...

References

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• Cowley, Robert and Parker, Geoffrey (Eds.). (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-618-12742-9
• Creasy, Edward Shepherd (1851/2001). Decisive Battles of the World. Simon Publicatons. ISBN 1-931541-81-7
• Davis, Paul K. (1999) "100 Decisive Battles From Ancient Times to the Present" ISBN 0-19-514366-3
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• Reagan, Geoffrey, The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles , Canopy Books, NY (1992) ISBN 1-55859-431-0
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Victor Davis Hanson giving a lecture at Kenyon College. ...

External links

• Poke, The Battle of Tours, from the book Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to Waterloo by Sir Edward Creasy, MA
• Edward Gibbon, The Battle of Tours, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Michael Grant, History of Rome
• Richard Hooker, "Civil War and the Umayyads"
• Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732: Three Accounts from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
• The Battle of Tours 732, from the "Jewish Virtual Library" website: A division of the American-Israeli Cooperative.
• Tours, Poiters, from "Leaders and Battles Database" online.
• Robert W. Martin, "The Battle of Tours is still felt today", from about.com