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Encyclopedia > Bees and toxic chemicals
An Eastern carpenter bee gathering pollen.
An Eastern carpenter bee gathering pollen.

Bees can suffer serious effects from toxic chemicals in their environment. This includes various man-made chemicals, such as pesticides and fertilizers, as well as a variety of naturally-occurring chemicals from plants, such as ethanol resulting from the fermentation of organic material. Bee intoxication can result from exposure to ethanol from fermented nectar, ripe fruits, and manmade and natural chemicals in the environment.[1][2] Eastern Carpenter Bee File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Eastern Carpenter Bee File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Binomial name Xylocopa virginica Linnaeus, 1771 Subspecies The common Eastern carpenter bee, (Xylocopa virginica), is the carpenter bee most often encountered in the eastern United States. ... SEM image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), lily (Lilium auratum), primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis). ... Families Andrenidae Apidae Colletidae Halictidae Megachilidae Melittidae Stenotritidae Bee collecting pollen Bees are flying insects, closely related to wasps and ants. ... // Toxic and Intoxicated redirect here – toxic has other uses, which can be found at Toxicity (disambiguation); for the state of being intoxicated by alcohol see Drunkenness. ... A cropduster spreading pesticide. ... Fertilizers are chemicals given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil or by foliar spraying. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor, and is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ... Fermentation in progress Fermentation is a process of energy production in a cell in an anaerobic environment (with no oxygen present). ... Drunkenness, in its most common usage, is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of ethyl alcohol to a degree that mental and physical facilities are noticeably impaired. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor, and is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ...


The effects of alcohol on bees are sufficiently similar to the effects of alcohol on humans that honey bees have been used as models of human ethanol intoxication.[3] However, the metabolism of bees and humans is sufficiently different that bees can safely collect nectars from plants that contain compounds toxic to humans. The honey produced by bees from these toxic nectars can be poisonous if consumed by humans. Many humans have eaten toxic honey and become quite ill as a result. The effects of alcohol on the human body can take several forms. ... The honeybee is a colonial insect that is often maintained, fed, and transported by farmers. ... A jar of honey, shown with a wooden honey server and scones. ...


Natural processes can also introduce toxic substances into nontoxic honey produced from nontoxic nectar. Microorganisms in honey can convert some of the sugars in honey to the toxic compound ethanol. This process of fermentation is intentionally harnessed to produce the alcoholic beverage called mead from fermented honey. Yeast fermenting the wort at Makers Mark distillery, a step in the production of a distilled beverage. ... Mead Mead is a fermented alcoholic beverage made of honey, water, and yeast. ...

Contents

Ethanol consumption by bees

Effects of intoxication

Bee showing its proboscis, or tongue.
Bee showing its proboscis, or tongue.

According to the American Heritage Dictionary, the word intoxicate can mean either "to stupefy or excite by the action of a chemical substance such as alcohol", "to stimulate or excite", or "to poison".[4] The introduction of certain chemical substances—such as ethanol or pesticides or defensive toxic biochemicals produced by plants—to a bee's environment can cause the bee to display abnormal or unusual behavior and disorientation. In sufficient quantities, such chemicals can poison and even kill the bee. Bee1. ... Bee1. ... In general, a proboscis (from Greek pro before and boskein to feed) is an elongated appendage from the head of an animal. ...


The effects of alcohol on bees have long been recognized. For example, John Cumming described the effect in an 1864 publication on beekeeping.[5] Beekeeping (or apiculture, from Latin apis, a bee) is the practice of intentional maintenance of honeybee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. ...


When bees become intoxicated from ethanol consumption or poisoned with other chemicals, their balance is affected, and they are wobbly when they walk. Charles Abramson's group at Oklahoma State University has put inebriated bees on running wheels, where they exhibit locomotion difficulties. They also put honey bees in shuttle-boxes that used a stimulus to encourage the bees to move, and found that they were less mobile as they became more intoxicated.[6][7] Oklahoma State University Logo The Oklahoma State University System comprises of five educational instututes across Oklahoma. ...


A temulent bee is more likely to stick out its tongue, or proboscis. Inebriated bees spend less time flying. If a bee is sufficiently intoxicated, it will just lay on its back and wiggle its legs. Inebriated bees typically have many more flying accidents as well. Some bees that consume ethanol become too inebriated to find their way back to the hive, and will die as a result.[6] Bozic et al (2006) found that alcohol consumption by honeybees disrupts foraging and social behaviors, and has some similar effects to poisoning with insecticides.[8] Some bees become more aggressive after consuming alcohol.[9] In general, a proboscis (from Greek pro before and boskein to feed) is an elongated appendage from the head of an animal. ...


Some honey bees like to consume fermented nectars containing ethanol more than others, and become notorious chronic inebriates around the hives. Bees station guard bees, or "bee bouncers", outside the hives to keep the inebriated bees from entering the hive and being disruptive. Intoxicated bees are forced to stay out of the hive until they sober up.[10] If a bee is a repeat offender and returns in an inebriated state to the hive too often, the "bee bouncers" will chew the offending bee's legs off.[6]


Exposure to alcohol can have a prolonged effect on bees, lasting as long as 48 hours.[11] This phenomenon is also observed in fruit flies[12] and is connected to the neurotransmitter octopamine in fruit flies, which is also present in bees.[13] Octopamine (4-(2-amino-1-hydroxy-ethyl)phenol) is a biogenic amine which is closely related to noradrenaline. ...


Bees as ethanol inebriation models

Recent advances have lead to the realization that bee inebriation models are potentially valuable for understanding vertebrate and even human ethanol intoxication:

"Advances over the past three decades in our understanding of nervous systems are impressive and come from a multifaceted approach to the study of both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. An almost unexpected by-product of the parallel investigation of vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems that is explored in this article is the emergent view of an intricate web of evolutionary homology and convergence exhibited in the structure and function of the nervous systems of these two large, paraphyletic groups of animals."[14]

The behavior of honey bees intoxicated by ethanol is being studied by scientists at The Ohio State University, University of Oklahoma, University of Ljubljana in Slovenia, and other sites as a potential model of the effects of alcohol on humans. At the Oklahoma State University, for example, Abramson's research found significant correlations between the reactions of bees and other vertebrates to ethanol exposure. This article is about Ohio State; there is also an Ohio University. ... The University of Oklahoma, often called OU or Oklahoma, is a coeducational public research university located in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. ... The University of Ljubljana (in Slovenian, Univerza v Ljubljani; in Latin, Universitas Labacensis) is the first and the largest university in Slovenia; with 56,000 enrolled students. ...

"The purpose of this experiment was to test the feasibility of creating an animal model of ethanol consumption using social insects.... The experiments on consumption, locomotion, and learning suggest that exposure to ethanol influences behavior of honey bees similar to that observed in experiments with analogous vertebrates."[6]

It has thus been found that "the honey bee nervous system is similar to that of vertebrates".[15][16] These similarities are pronounced enough to even make it possible to derive information on the functioning of human brains from how bees react to certain chemicals. Julie Mustard, a researcher at Ohio State, explained that:

"On the molecular level, the brains of honey bees and humans work the same. Knowing how chronic alcohol use affects genes and proteins in the honey bee brain may help us eventually understand how alcoholism affects memory and behavior in humans, as well as the molecular basis of addiction."[15][17]

The evaluation of a bee model for ethanol inebration of vertebrates has just begun, but appears to be promising. The bees are fed ethanol solutions and their behavior observed.[6] Researchers place the bees in tiny harnesses, and feed them varying concentrations of alcohol introduced into sugar solutions.[15][6] Tests of locomotion, foraging, social interaction and aggressiveness are performed. Mustard has noted that "Alcohol affects bees and humans in similar ways—it impairs motor functioning along with learning and memory processing."[15][17]


The interaction of bees with antabuse (disulfiram, a common medication administered as a treatment for alcoholism) has been tested as well.[18] Disulfiram is a drug used to support the treatment of chronic alcoholism by producing an acute sensitivity to alcohol). ...


Bee exposure to other toxic and inebriating chemicals

Man-made chemicals

Main article: Pesticide toxicity to bees

Bees can be severely and even fatally affected by pesticides, fertilizers and other chemicals that man has introduced into the environment. They can appear inebriated and dizzy, and even die. This is serious because it has substantial economic consequences for agriculture. Pesticides vary in their effect on bees. ...

Bumblebee
Bumblebee

This problem has been the object of growing concern. For example, researchers at the University of Hohenheim are studying how bees can be poisoned by exposure to seed disinfectants.[19] In France, the Ministry of Agriculture commissioned an expert group, the Scientific and Technical Committee for the Multifactorial Study on Bees (CST), to study the intoxicating and sometimes fatal effects of chemicals used in agriculture on bees.[20] Researchers at the Bee Research Institute and the Department of Food Chemistry and Analysis in the Czech Republic have pondered the intoxicating effects of various chemicals used to treat winter rape crops.[21] Romania suffered a severe case of widespread bee intoxication and extensive bee mortality from deltamethrin in 2002.[22] The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) even has published standards for testing chemicals for bee intoxication.[23] A cropped version of Image:Bumblebee_closeup. ... A cropped version of Image:Bumblebee_closeup. ... Species more than 250 species and subspecies in 37 subgenera Bumblebees (also spelled bumble bee, also known as humblebee) are flying insects of the genus Bombus in the family Apidae. ... Hohenheim is a suburb of Stuttgart in the state of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. ... EPA redirects here. ...


Natural compounds

Bees and other hymenoptera can also be substantially affected by natural compounds in the environment besides ethanol. For example, Dariusz L. Szlachetko of the Department of Plant Taxonomy and Nature Conservation, Gdańsk University observed wasps in Poland acting very sleepy and potentially inebriated after eating nectar of the north American orchid Neotticae Limodorinae.[24] Suborders Apocrita Symphyta Many families, see article Hymenoptera is one of the larger orders of Insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. ... // History GdaÅ„sk University in GdaÅ„sk was established in 1970 by the amalgamation of the Higher School of Economics in Sopot (existing since 1945) and GdaÅ„sk College of Education (formed in 1946). ... Dendrobium Orchid in southern Florida The taxonomy of the orchid family has evolved slowly during the last 150 years, starting with Carolus Linnaeus who in 1753 recognized eight genera. ...


Detzel and Wink (2005) published an extensive review of 63 types of plant allelochemicals (alkaloids, terpenes, glycosides, etc.) and their effects on bees when consumed. It was found that 39 chemical compounds repelled bees (primarily alkaloids, coumarins and saponins) and 3 terpene compounds attracted bees. They report that 17 out of 29 allelochemicals are toxic at some levels (especially alkaloids, saponins, cardiac glycosides and cyanogenic glycosides).[25] An alkaloid is a nitrogenous organic molecule that has a pharmacological effect on humans and other animals. ... Terpenes are a class of hydrocarbons, produced by many plants, particularly conifers. ... A glycoside is a molecule where a sugar group is bonded through its anomeric carbon to a nonsugar group by either an oxygen or a nitrogen atom. ... An alkaloid is a nitrogenous organic molecule that has a pharmacological effect on humans and other animals. ... Saponins are a class of glucosides found in plants. ... An alkaloid is a nitrogenous organic molecule that has a pharmacological effect on humans and other animals. ... Saponins are a class of glucosides found in plants. ... Cardiac glycosides are drugs used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. ... In chemistry, glycosides are certain molecules in which a sugar part is bound to some other part. ...


Bee inebriation in pollination

Some plants reportedly rely on using intoxicating chemicals to produce inebriated bees, and use this inebriation as part of their reproductive strategy.

Bucket orchid
Bucket orchid

One plant that some claim uses this mechanism is the South American bucket orchid (Coryanthes sp.), an epiphyte. The bucket orchid attracts male euglossine bees with its scent from a variety of aromatic compounds. The bees store these compounds in specialized spongy pouches inside their swollen hind legs, as they appear to use the scent as part of their courtship dances in order to attract females. Near Orosí, Costa Rica Epiphytes on a tree near Santa Elena in Costa Rica An example of an epiphyte assemblage of orchids and bromeliads in a garden setting in Hawaii An epiphyte is any plant that grows upon or attached to another living plant. ... Genera Aglae Euglossa Eulaema Eufriesea Exaerete Euglossine bees, also called orchid bees, are the only group of corbiculate bees which do not all possess eusocial behavior. ...


However, the flower is constructed in such a way as to make the surface almost impossible to cling to, with smooth, downward-pointing hairs; the bees commonly slip and fall into the fluid in the bucket, and the only navigable route out is a narrow, constricting passage that either glues a "pollinium" (a pollen sack) on their body (if the flower has not yet been visited) or removes any pollinium that is there (if the flower has already been visited). The passageway constricts after a bee has entered, and holds it there for a few minutes, allowing the glue to dry and securing the pollinium. It has been suggested that this process involves "inebriation" of the bees,[26][27][28][29] but this has never been confirmed. Pollinia of Phalaenopsis Pollinium, or plural pollinia, is a coherent mass of pollen grains. ...


In this way, the bucket orchid passes its pollen from flower to flower. This mechanism is almost but not quite species specific, as it is possible for a few closely-related bees to pollinate any given species of orchid, as long as the bees are similar in size and are attracted by the same compounds.[30]


The Gongora horichiana orchid was suspected by Lanau (1992) of producing pheromones like a female euglossine bee[31] and even somewhat resembles a female euglossine bee shape, using these characteristics to spread its pollen: Species See text The genus Gongora (Ruiz and Pavon, 1794) is a member of the Orchid family (Orchidaceae). ... Fanning honeybee exposes Nasonov gland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive A pheromone is any chemical or set of chemicals produced by a living organism that transmits a message to other members of the same species. ...

"A hapless male bee, blind drunk with the flower's overpowering pheromones, might well mistake a toadstool for a suitable mate, but the flower has made at least a modest attempt at recreating a beelike gestalt."[32].

However, this seems unlikely, given that no one has ever documented that female euglossines produce pheromones; male euglossines produce pheromones using the chemicals they collect from orchids, and these pheromones attract females, rather than the converse, as Cullina (2004) suggests.


Van der Pijl and Dodson (1966) observed that bees of the species eulaema and xylocopa exhibit symptoms of inebriation after consuming nectar from the orchids Sobralia violacea and Sobralia rosea.[33][34] Sobralia is a genus of orchids (family Orchidaceae) native to Central and South America. ... Sobralia is a genus of orchids (family Orchidaceae) native to Central and South America. ...


Toxic honey

Some substances which are toxic to humans have no effect on bees. If bees obtain their nectar from certain flowers, the resulting honey can be psychoactive, or even toxic to humans, but innocuous to bees and bee larvae.[35]


There have been famous episodes of inebriation of humans from consuming toxic honey throughout history. Xenophon, Aristotle, Strabo, Pliny the Elder and Columella all document the results of eating "maddening" honey.[36] Honey from these plants poisoned Roman troops in the first century BCE under Pompey the Great when they were attacking the Heptakometes in Turkey. The soldiers were delirious and vomiting after eating the toxic honey. The Romans were easily defeated.[37][38] Xenophon, Greek historian Xenophon (In Greek , c. ... Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... The Greek geographer Strabo in a 16th century engraving. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19c portrait. ... Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (Gades in Hispania Baetica, 4 AD - ca. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ...

Rhododendron ponticum

For example, honey produced from nectar of Rhododendron ponticum and Azalea pontica contain alkaloids that are poisonous to humans but do not harm bees. Honey produced from the nectar of andromeda flowers contains grayanotoxins which can paralyze the limbs, and eventually the diaphragm and result in death.[39] Honey obtained from Kalmia latifolia, the calico bush, mountain laurel or spoon-wood of the northern United States, and allied species such as sheep laurel (Kalmia angustifolia) can produce sickness or even death.[40] The nectar of the "wharangi bush", the Melicope ternata in New Zealand also produces toxic honey, and this has been fatal.[41] The dangers of toxic honey were also well-known among the Pre-Columbian residents of the Yucutan Peninsula, though this was honey produced by stingless bees, not by honey bees, which are not native to the Americas.[42] Bee nectar collection from Datura plants in Mexico and Hungary, belladonna flowers, henbane (Hyoscamus niger) plants from Hungary, Serjania lethalis from Brazil and Gelsemium sempervirens from the American Southwest can all result in toxic honey.[43] Binomial name Rhododendron ponticum L. Rhododendron ponticum (Common Rhododendron or Pontic Rhododendron) is a species of Rhododendron native to southern Europe and southwest Asia. ... Binomial name Rhododendron ponticum L. Rhododendron ponticum (Common Rhododendron or Pontic Rhododendron) is a species of Rhododendron native to southern Europe and southwest Asia. ... Species see text Source: The Rhododendron page, and some research. ... An alkaloid is a nitrogenous organic molecule that has a pharmacological effect on humans and other animals. ... Binomial name Andromeda polifolia L. Bog-rosemary (Andromeda polifolia) is a heath shrub found across northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere. ... A diaphragm is some sort of separating membrane. ... Binominal name Kalmia latifolia L. Mountain-laurel is the common name of Kalmia latifolia a flowering shrub of the family Ericaceae Found in the eastern USA, this is a poisonous broad-leaved (3-12 cm long, 1-4 cm wide) evergreen shrub, between 3-9 m tall. ... Species About 150 species including in: Australia: Melicope elleryana - Corkwood Melicope octandra - Doughwood New Zealand: Melicope simplex - Poataniwha Melicope ternata - Wharangi Hawaii: Melicope adscendens - Alani Melicope balloui - Alani Melicope haupuensis - Alani Melicope knudsenii - Alani Melicope munroi - Alani Melicope ovalis - Alani Melicope pallida - Alani Melicope quadrangularis - Alani Melicope reflexa - Alani Melicope... Species About 150 species including in: Australia: Melicope elleryana - Corkwood Melicope octandra - Doughwood New Zealand: Melicope simplex - Poataniwha Melicope ternata - Wharangi Hawaii: Melicope adscendens - Alani Melicope balloui - Alani Melicope haupuensis - Alani Melicope knudsenii - Alani Melicope munroi - Alani Melicope ovalis - Alani Melicope pallida - Alani Melicope quadrangularis - Alani Melicope reflexa - Alani Melicope... Genera Lestrimelitta Melipona Trigona, sensu lato: (21 genera) The stingless bees belong to the tribe Meliponini (usually called the stingless honeybee) in the family Apidae, which also comprise the common honeybees, carpenter bees, orchid bees and bumblebees. ... The honeybee is a colonial insect that is often maintained, fed, and transported by farmers. ... Species See text below Datura is a genus of 12-15 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. ... For information on the erotic actress Belladonna see: Belladonna. ... Binomial name Hyoscyamus niger L. Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) is a plant of the family Solanaceae that originated in Eurasia. ... genera See text Sapindaceae, also known as the soapberry family, is a family of plants in the order Sapindales. ... Yellow Jessamine (also known as evening trumpetflower or Carolina Jessamine; Gelsemium sempervirens, [L.] St. ...


Fermented honey

Honey that is not produced from the nectar of toxic plants can also ferment to produce ethanol, which is a toxin. For example, B. D. Kettlewellh (1945) describes finding an intoxicated bird, incapable of normal flight, that had been consuming honey that had fermented in the sun in Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa.[44] City motto: Praestantia Praevaleat Pretoria (May Pretoria Be Pre-eminent In Excellence) Province Gauteng Area  - % water 1,644 km² 0. ... Flag of Transvaal For the Russian theme park, see Transvaal Park. ...


Sometimes honey is fermented intentionally to produce mead, a fermented alcoholic beverage made of honey, water, and yeast (called "meadhing"). Mead is also known as "honey wine".[45] Yeast fermenting the wort at Makers Mark distillery, a step in the production of a distilled beverage. ... Mead Mead is a fermented alcoholic beverage made of honey, water, and yeast. ... In its strictest sense fermentation (scientifically called zymosis) is the energy-yielding anaerobic metabolic breakdown of a nutrient molecule, such as glucose, without net oxidation. ... Bottles of cachaça, a Brazilian alcoholic beverage. ... A jar of honey, shown with a wooden honey server and scones. ... Impact of a drop of water. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota Basidiomycotina (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are unicellular, eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi. ... A glass of red wine This article is about the alcoholic beverage. ...


See also

Colony Collapse Disorder (or CCD) is a term used in beekeeping. ... Pesticides vary in their effect on bees. ... Common diseases, parasites, pests, and ailments of the honey bee include: // Varroa mite on a honey bee larva Main articles: Varroa destructor Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. ... Pollinator decline is based on observations made at the end of the twentieth century of the reduction in abundance of pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide. ... Pseudocopulation is a method of attracting pollinators via sexual stimulation. ... Bees are universally the most symbolic of insects. ...

Notes

  1. ^ Of course, other creatures are not immune to the effects of alcohol:
    Many of us have noticed that bees or yellow jackets cannot fly well after having drunk the juice of overripe fruits or berries; bears have been seen to stagger and fall down after eating fermented honey; and birds often crash or fly haphazardly while intoxicated on ethanol that occurs naturally as free-floating microorganisms convert vegetable carbohydrates to [alcohol] (Drug Policy and Human Nature: Psychological Perspectives On The Prevention, Management, and Treatment of Illicit Drug Abuse, Warren K. Bickel, Richard J. DeGrandpre, Springer 1996 ISBN 0306452413)
  2. ^ Fruit flies and other insects also exhibit symptoms of ethanol intoxication ( Molecular Genetic Analysis of Ethanol Intoxication in Drosophila melanogaster, Ulrike Heberlein, Fred W. Wolf, Adrian Rothenfluh and Douglas J. Guarnieri, Integrative and Comparative Biology 2004 44(4):269-274; doi:10.1093/icb/44.4.269 ).
  3. ^ Latest Buzz in Research: Intoxicated Honey bees may clue Scientists into Drunken Human Behavior, The Ohio State Research News, Research Communications, Columbus OH, October 23, 2004.
  4. ^ The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Copyright © 2000
  5. ^ Bee-keeping, by 'The Times' bee-master, John Cumming, Published 1864.
  6. ^ a b c d e f The Development of an Ethanol Model Using Social Insects I: Behavior Studies of the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.): Neurobiological, Psychosocial, and Developmental Correlates of Drinking, Charles I. Abramson, Sherril M. Stone, Richard A. Ortez, Alessandra Luccardi, Kyla L. Vann, Kate D. Hanig, Justin Rice, Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research. 24(8):1153-1166, August 2000.
  7. ^ [1]
  8. ^ Reduced ability of ethanol drinkers for social communication in honeybees (Apis mellifera carnica Poll.), Bozic J., Abramson C.I. et Bedencic M., Alcohol, Elsevier Inc. ; 2006, Vol.38, n°3, 179-183
  9. ^ Development of an ethanol model using social insects: IV. Influence of ethanol on the aggression of africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera L.), ABRAMSON Charles I. ; PLACE Aaron J. ; AQUINO Italo S. ; FERNANDEZ Andrea ; Psychological reports (Psychol. rep.), ISSN 0033-2941, vol. 94 (2), no3, 2004, pp. 1107-1115 PMID: 15362379
  10. ^ Driven to Drink: A Sorry Tale of Bees' Boozy Life, L. Dayton, New Scientist, August 8, 1992, p. 14
  11. ^ Happy Hour Bees , Mythology and Mead, Carolyn Smagalski, BellaOnline, The Voice of Women, 2007 describes a prolonged effect from ethanol consumption by honeybees as similar to a "hangover".
  12. ^ Ulrike Heberlein's group at University of California, San Francisco has used fruit flies as models of human inebriation and even identified genes that seem to be responsible for alcohol tolerance accumulation (believed to be associated with veisalgia, or hangover), and produced genetically engineered strains that do not develop alcohol tolerance (Moore, M. S., Dezazzo, J., Luk, A. Y., Tully, T., Singh, C. M., and Heberlein, U. (1998) Ethanol intoxication in Drosophila: Genetic and pharmacological evidence for regulation by the cAMP pathway. Cell 93, 997-1007 PMID: 9635429; Tecott, L. H. and Heberlein, U. (1998) Y do we drink? Cell 95: 733-735 PMID: 9865690; Bar Flies: What our insect relatives can teach us about alcohol tolerance., Ruth Williams, Naked Scientist; ‘Hangover gene’ is key to alcohol tolerance, Gaia Vince, NewScientist.com news service, 22 August 2005)
  13. ^ Octopamine receptors in the honey bee and locust nervous system: pharmacological similarities between homologous receptors of distantly related species, Joern Degen, Michael Gewecke and Thomas Roeder, British Journal of Pharmacology (2000) 130, 587−594; doi: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0703338 PMID: 10821787
  14. ^ Homology and convergence in vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems, D. Sandeman, Naturwissenschaften. 1999 Aug;86(8):378-87 PMID: 10481825
  15. ^ a b c d Intoxicated Honey Bees May Clue Scientists Into Drunken Human Behavior, Science Daily, October 25, 2004
  16. ^ Entymology Postdoctoral researcher Dr. Geraldine Wright, Ohio State University
  17. ^ a b Entymology Postdoctoral researcher Dr. Julie Mustard, Ohio State University
  18. ^ Development of an ethanol model using social insects: II. Effect of Antabuse on consumatory responses and learned behavior of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.)., Abramson CI, Fellows GW, Browne BL, Lawson A, Ortiz RA., Psychol Rep. 2003 Apr;92(2):365-78. PMID: 12785614
  19. ^ Honey bee intoxication caused by seed disinfectants, Dr.sc.agr. Klaus Wallner, University of Hohenheim
  20. ^ Recent Issues Related to Bee Troubles in France, J.N. Tasei, report to International Apis Health Assessment Committee (IAHAC), Bologna, Italy, May 6, 2004. This report included the results of a study of the toxic effects on bees of the seed dressings imidacloprid and fipronil.
  21. ^ Intoxication of honeybees on chemical treated winter rape: problem of its verification, František Kamler, Dalibor Titěra, Jiřina Piškulová, Jana Hajšlová, Kateřina Maštovská, Bulletin of Insectology 56 (1): 125-127, 2003 ISSN 1721-8861
  22. ^ A case of acute intoxication with deltamethrin in bee colonies in Romania, Daniela Nica, Elisabeta Bianu, Gabriela Chioveanu, Apiacta, 39, 71-77, 2004.
  23. ^ Ecological Effects Test Guidelines OPPTS 850.3030: Honey Bee Toxicity of Residues on Foliage, EPA 712–C–96–148 April 1996.
  24. ^ An atlas of orchid pollination: America, Africa, Asia and Australia, Nelis A. Cingel, CRC Press 2001 ISBN 9054104864 p. 44
  25. ^ Attraction, deterrence or intoxication of bees (Apis mellifera) by plant allelochemicals, Andreas Detzel and Michael Wink, Chemoecology, Birkhäuser Basel, Volume 4, Number 1 / March, 1993, ISSN 0937-7409 (Print) 1423-0445 (Online)
  26. ^ Natural pollination of orchids, C.H. Dodson and G.P. Frymire, Mo. Bot. Gard. Bull. 49(9): 133-152. 1961
  27. ^ From page 192 of Interrelationship Between Insects and Plants, Pierre Jolivet, CRC Press, 1998, ISBN 1574440527 , "The first hymenopteran to visit has difficulties coping with the rostrellum but the later ones to arrive easily escape, soaked, drunk, and often having completed their pollinating function."
  28. ^ bumblebee.org article on Hymenoptera
  29. ^ Thieves, Deceivers, and Killers: tales of chemistry in nature, William C. Agosta, Princeton University Press, 2001, ISBN 0691004889
  30. ^ Pollination by Euglossine Bees, Robert L. Dressler, Evolution, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Mar., 1968), pp. 202-210 doi:10.2307/2406664
  31. ^ Evolutionary aspects of perfume collection in male euglossine bees (Hymenoptera) and of nest deception in bee-pollinated flowers, Klaus Lunau, Chemoecology, Volume 3, Number 2, June, 1992 ISSN 0937-7409 (Print) 1423-0445 (Online) speculated that the chemicals produced by the bucket orchid mimic bee pheromones.
  32. ^ From page 180 of Understanding Orchids: an uncomplicated guide to growing the world's most exotic plants, William Cullina, Houghton Mifflin Books, 2004, ISBN 0618263268
  33. ^ An atlas of orchid pollination: America, Africa, Asia and Australia, Nelis A. Cingel, CRC Press, 2001, ISBN 9054104864
  34. ^ Orchid Flowers Their Pollination and Evolution, Leendert Van der Pijl, Calaway H. Dodson, Univ of Miami Press, 1966, ISBN 0870240692
  35. ^ Mad Honey [toxic honey in history] ,Adrienne Mayor, Archaeology 48.6 November-December, 1995.
  36. ^ John the Baptist’s “Wild Honey” and “Honey” in Antiquity, James A. Kelhoffer, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 45 (2005) 59–73
  37. ^ Ancient Beekeeping, G. P. Georghiou, The ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture (Root, A.I., editors.) A.I. Root Company. Medina, Ohio, 1980 pp. 17-21
  38. ^ Bees and Warfare: Gleanings in Bee Culture, J. T. Ambrose, pp. 343-346, 1972
  39. ^ Bee Products: Properties, Applications, and Apitherapy, Yaacov Lensky, Springer, 1997, ISBN 0306455021
  40. ^ Consumption of the leaves of Kalmia can be fatal to cattle and grouse. (Nature's Garden: An Aid to Our Knowledge of Our Wild Flowers and Their Insect Visitors, Neltje Blanchan, Garden City Pub. Co, 1900.)
  41. ^ Flora Apcola Tropical, D. Espina-Prez and G.S. Ordetx-Ros, Editorial Tecnolgico de Costa Rica, Cartago, Costa Rica, 1983 p. 35
  42. ^ The Delphic Bee: Bees and Toxic Honeys as Pointers to Psychoactive and Other Medicinal Plants, J. Ott, Economic Botany 52 (1998) 260–266.
  43. ^ Crane, E. 1975. Honey: a Comprehensive Survey, Bee Research Association. William Heinemann Ltd., London; Espina-Prez, D. and G.S. Ordetx-Ros. 1983. Flora Apcola Tropical, Editorial Tecnolgico de Costa Rica, Cartago, Costa Rica.
  44. ^ A Story of Nature's Debauch, B. D. Kettlewellh, The Entomologist, vol. 88, no. 1101, February, 1945, pp. 45-47.
  45. ^ The history of mead may go back more than 8,000 years. A reference in the Vedas, the sacred book of the Hindus, cites honey as a sacred item as far back as the 8th century BCE. Aristotle described honey beverages. The word for "drunk" in classical Greek even is translated as "honey-intoxicated." (Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Karl Kerenyi, Princeton University Press, 1976. ISBN 0-691-09863-8)

UCSF in 1908, with the streetcar that used to run on Parnassus Avenue The University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) is one of the worlds leading centers of health sciences research, patient care, and education. ... A hangover is the after-effect following the consumption of large amounts of one drug or another. ... Species See text Kalmia is a genus of about 7 species of evergreen shrubs from 0. ... Veda redirects here. ... This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... Aristotle (Greek: AristotélÄ“s) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... The History of Greece extends back to the arrival of the Greeks in Europe some time before 1500 BC, even though there has only been an independent state called Greece since Turkey, Italy and Libya. ... One of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, Karl (Carl, Károly) Kerényi (January 19, 1897 - April 14, 1973) was born in Hungary but became a citizen of Switzerland in 1943. ...

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