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RESEARCH Ψ

Abnormal Biological Cognitive Developmental Emotion Experimental Evolutionary Mathematical Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psychonomics Psychophysics Social Transpersonal Psychology (from Greek: ψυχή, psukhē, spirit, soul; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. ... Image File history File links Psi2. ... The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates, in Europe, back to the Late Middle Ages. ... Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method. ... Abnormal psychology is the scientific study of abnormal behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. ... Biological psychology, sometimes referred to as psychobiology or biopsychology, is a subfield of psychology. ... Cognitive Psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation). ... Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... Mathematical Psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, cognitive and motor processes, and on the establishment of law-like rules that relate quantifiable stimulus characteristics with quantifiable behavior. ... Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology and neurology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors. ... Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and individual differences. ... Positive psychology is a relatively young branch of psychology that studies the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. ... Psychonomics describes an approach to psychology that aims at discovering the laws (Greek: nomos) that govern the workings of the mind (Greek: psyche). The field is directly related to experimental psychology. ... Psychophysics is the branch of cognitive psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their perception. ... Social psychology is the scientific study of how peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Allport, 1985). ... Transpersonal psychology is a school of psychology that studies the transpersonal, the transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human mind. ...

APPLIED Ψ

Clinical Educational Forensic Health Industrial/Org Sport The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome practical problems in other fields, such as business management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, law and clinical medicine. ... The Greek letter Psi is often used as a symbol of psychology. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Industrial and organizational psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, W-O psychology, occupational psychology, personnel psychology or talent assessment) concerns the application of psychological theories, research methods, and intervention strategies to workplace issues. ...

LISTS

Publications Topics Therapies This is a list of important publications in psychology, organized by field. ... link title Headline text --Cknuth7 16:35, 3 April 2006 (UTC) This page aims to list articles related to psychology. ... This is an alphabetical List of Psychotherapies. ... view · talk

Behaviorism (also called learning perspective) is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors. The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind. Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling). Psychology (from Greek: ψυχή, psukhÄ“, spirit, soul; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... For other uses, see Mind (disambiguation). ...

From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning. Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the work of Sigmund Freud. ... This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... A Phrenological mapping of the brain. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... It has been suggested that eye blink conditioning be merged into this article or section. ... Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 - August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. ... John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878–September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. ... This article is about the psychological process of introspecting. ... Experimental psychology is an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method. ... Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 _ August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist and author. ... Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. ...

Approaches

Versions

There is no classification generally agreed upon, but some would say it as true, and some would add to or modify this list.

• Classical: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no internal states; thought is covert speech.
• Methodological: The objective study of third-person behavior; the data of psychology must be inter-subjectively verifiable; no theoretical prescriptions. It has been absorbed into general experimental and cognitive psychology.
• Radical: Skinnerian behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands behavioral principles to processes within the organism; in contrast to methodological behaviorism; not mechanistic or reductionist; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states are not considered causes of behavior, phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing them.
• Logical: Established by Oxford philosopher Gilbert Ryle in his book The Concept of Mind (1949).
• Teleological: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics.
• Theoretical: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once meant "unobservable", but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony.
• Biological: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems.
• Interbehaviorism: Founded by J. R. Kantor before Skinner's writings and currently worked by L. Hayes; E. Ribes; and S. Bijou. centred in the interbehavior of organisms, field theory of behavior; emphasis on human behavior.

Two popular subtypes are Neo: Hullian and post-Hullian, theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological, and Purposive: Tolman’s behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology. Secrecy is the condition of hiding information from others. ... In mathematics, theory is used informally to refer to a body of knowledge about mathematics. ... Cognitive Psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. ... Radical behaviorism is a philosophy that underlies the experimental analysis of behavior approach to psychology, developed by B. F. Skinner. ... Gilbert Ryle (born August 19, 1900 in Brighton, died October 6, 1976 in Oxford), was a philosopher, and a representative of the generation of British ordinary language philosophers influenced by Wittgensteins insights into language, and is principally known for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for which he coined the... Microeconomics (or price theory) is a branch of economics that studies how individuals, households, and firms make decisions to allocate limited resources,[1] typically in markets where goods or services are being bought and sold. ... Look up Eclectic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Look up parsimony in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) was an influential American psychologist and behaviorist who sought to explain learning and motivation by scientific laws of behavior. ... Edward Chace Tolman (1886 - 1959) was an American psychologist. ...

B.F. Skinner and radical behaviorism

Main article: Radical behaviorism

Skinner, who carried out experimental work mainly in comparative psychology from the 1930s to the 1950s, but remained behaviorism's best known theorist and exponent virtually until his death in 1990, developed a distinct kind of behaviorist philosophy, which came to be called radical behaviorism. He is credited with having founded a new version of psychological science, which has come to be called behavior analysis or the experimental analysis of behavior after variations on the subtitle to his 1938 work The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis Of Behavior. Radical behaviorism is a philosophy that underlies the experimental analysis of behavior approach to psychology, developed by B. F. Skinner. ... Burrhus Frederic Fred Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990), Ph. ... Face The 1930s (years from 1930–1939) were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression, also known in Europe as the World Depression. ... This does not cite any references or sources. ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... Radical behaviorism is a philosophy that underlies the experimental analysis of behavior approach to psychology, developed by B. F. Skinner. ... The experimental analysis of behavior is the name given to the approach to psychology founded by B. F. Skinner. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ...

Definition

Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis of his school of research (named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB differs from other approaches to behavioral research on numerous methodological and theoretical points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in accepting treatment of feelings, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. This is done by identifying them as something non-dualistic, and here Skinner takes a divide-and-conquer approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior, and others getting a more extended 'analysis' in terms of behavior. However, radical behaviorism stops short of identifying feelings as causes of behavior. Among other points of difference were a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science of behavior complementary to but independent of physiology. The term dualism is the state of being dual, or having a twofold division. ...

Experimental and conceptual innovations

This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms (1938) and Schedules of Reinforcement (1957, with C. B. Ferster) and others. Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function--shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S-R theory. Year 1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar). ...

Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations – Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response 'association' or 'connection' was abandoned – and methodological ones – the use of the 'free operant', so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, and to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the quantitative analysis of behavior. Trial and error, or trial by error, is a general method of problem solving for obtaining knowledge, both propositional knowledge and know-how. ...

Relation to language

As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention naturally turned to human language. His book Verbal Behavior (1957) laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior. The book was strongly criticized in a review by the linguist Noam Chomsky.^[1] Skinner did not himself respond in detail; he claimed that "[Chomsky] doesn’t know what I am talking about and for some reason is unable to understand it".^[2] A thorough refutation was written by Kenneth McCorquodale [1] ^[3] and submitted to Language but was refused and later printed in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Verbal Behavior (1957) is a book written by B.F. Skinner in which the author presents his ideas on language. ... Avram Noam Chomsky (Hebrew :אברם נועם חומסקי Yiddish: אברם נועם כאמסקי) (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, political activist, author, and lecturer. ... Language (E-ISSN: 1535-0665 Print ISSN: 0097-8507) is the official journal for the Linguistic Society of America, published since 1924. ...

What was important for a behaviorist analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Important figures in this effort have been Murray Sidman, A. Charles Catania, C. Fergus Lowe and Steven C. Hayes. Language Acquisition: A Journal of Developmental Linguistics Language acquisition is the process by which the language capability develops in a human. ... Also: 1969 (Stargate SG-1) episode. ...

Molar versus molecular behaviorism

Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior, that is each behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inaccurate when one considers his complete description of behavior as delineated in the 1981 article, Selection by Consequences and many other works. Skinner claims that a complete account of behavior has involved an understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism, with all those histories, then interacts with its environment. He often described even his own behavior as a product of his phylogenetic history, his reinforcement history (which includes the learning of cultural practices) interacting with the environment at the moment. Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin argue that behavior can not be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that a behavior can be understood best in terms of the ultimate cause of history and that molecular behaviorist are committing a fallacy by inventing a fictitious proximal cause for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs such as "associative strength" are such fictitious proximal causes that simply take the place of molar variables such as rate of reinforcement. Thus, a molar behaviorist would define a behavior such as loving someone as exhibiting a pattern of loving behavior over time, there is no known proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example of) that can be summarized as love. Molectular behaviorists use notions from Melioration theory, Negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting. Year 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 Gregorian calendar). ... Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek: βίος, bio, life; and λόγος, logos, knowledge), also referred to as the biological sciences, is the study of living organisms utilizing the scientific method. ... Darwins illustrations of beak variation in the finches of the Galápagos Islands, which hold 13 closely related species that differ most markedly in the shape of their beaks. ... In biology, phylogenetics (Greek: phylon = tribe, race and genetikos = relative to birth, from genesis = birth) is the study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms (e. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Howard Rachlin is Emeritus Research Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA. He is one founders of Behavioral Economics that is based on animal as well as human research. ... Love is any of a number of emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong affection or profound oneness. ... Melioration Theory posits that organisms are sensitive to differences in the local rates of reinforcement: number of reinforcements obtained at an alternative divided by time at that alternative. ... In behavioral economics, hyperbolic discounting refers to the empirical finding that people generally prefer smaller payoffs to larger payoffs when the smaller payoffs come sooner in time than the larger; when all the payoffs are either distant or proximal in time, people tend to prefer the larger. ...

Behaviorism in philosophy

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be compared with philosophy of mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms. Other varieties, such as theoretical behaviorism, permit internal states, but do not require them to be mental or have any relation to subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. A Phrenological mapping of the brain. ... The Michelson–Morley experiment was used to disprove that light propagated through a luminiferous aether. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... This is a discussion of a present category of science. ...

There are points of view within analytic philosophy that have called themselves, or have been called by others, behaviorist. In logical behaviorism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W. V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented 'category mistakes,' and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist. [2] Analytic philosophy (sometimes, analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. ... Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891, Ronsdorf, Germany – September 14, 1970, Santa Monica, California) was an influential philosopher who was active in central Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. ... Carl Gustav Hempel (* January 8th, 1905 in Oranienburg, Germany † November 9th, 1997 in Princeton, New Jersey) was a philosopher of science and a student of logical positivism. ... W. V. Quine Willard Van Orman Quine (June 25, 1908 - December 25, 2000) was one of the most influential American philosophers and logicians of the 20th century. ... Gilbert Ryle (born August 19, 1900 in Brighton, died October 6, 1976 in Oxford), was a philosopher, and a representative of the generation of British ordinary language philosophers influenced by Wittgensteins insights into language, and is principally known for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for which he coined the... Daniel Clement Dennett (b. ...

It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a behaviorist position, and there are important areas of overlap between his philosophy, logical behaviorism, and radical behaviorism (e.g., the Beetle in a box argument). Mathematician Alan Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist, but he himself did not make this identification. Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (IPA: ) (April 26, 1889 in Vienna, Austria – April 29, 1951 in Cambridge, England) was an Austrian philosopher who contributed several ground-breaking ideas to philosophy, primarily in the foundations of logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mind. ... Book cover of the Blackwell edition of Philosophical Investigations Philosophical Investigations (Philosophische Untersuchungen) is, along with the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one of the two major works by 20th-century philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. ... Alan Mathison Turing, OBE, FRS (23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, logician, and cryptographer. ...

Behaviorists

• Albert Bandura
• Edwin Ray Guthrie
• Richard J. Herrnstein
• Clark L. Hull
• Ivan Pavlov
• B. F. Skinner
• Edward Lee Thorndike
• Edward Tolman
• John Watson

Albert Bandura (born 4 20 1925 in Mundare, Canada), a Ball Licker, is best known for his work on nut sack and on self-efficacy. ... Edwin Ray Guthrie (9 January 1886 - 23 April 1959) was an American behavioral psychologist. ... Richard Herrnstein (1930-1994) was a prominent researcher in comparative psychology who did pioneering work on pigeon intelligence employing the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and formulated the Matching Law in the 1960s, a breakthrough in understanding how reinforcement and behavior are linked. ... Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) was an influential American psychologist and behaviorist who sought to explain learning and motivation by scientific laws of behavior. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Burrhus Frederic Fred Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990), Ph. ... Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 - August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. ... Edward Chace Tolman (1886 - 1959) was an American psychologist. ... John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878–September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. ...

See also

• Animal training - trainers often refer to themselves as Behaviorists
• Applied behavior analysis - the applied wing of the experimental analysis of behavior.
• Experimental analysis of behavior - the discipline that continues Skinner's work today.
• Behavior Modification
• Chatterbot
• Classical conditioning
• Cognitive revolution
• Cognition
• Important publications in behaviorism
• Operant conditioning
• Philosophy of mind
• Positive Adult Development
• Verstehen
• Dog behaviorist
• Genetics Influencing Aggression
• Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior

Animal training is a method to teach animals to perform specific acts in response to conditions or stimuli. ... Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a systematic process of studying and modifying observable behavior through a manipulation of the environment. ... The experimental analysis of behavior is the name given to the approach to psychology founded by B. F. Skinner. ... This article is about the behaviorist technique. ... A chatterbot is a computer program designed to simulate an intelligent conversation with one or more human users via auditory or textual methods. ... It has been suggested that eye blink conditioning be merged into this article or section. ... The cognitive revolution is a name for an intellectual movement in the 1950s that combined new thinking in psychology, anthropology and linguistics with the nascent fields of computer science and neuroscience. ... Look up Cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This is a list of important publications in psychology, organized by field. ... Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. ... A Phrenological mapping of the brain. ... // In recent years, researchers from many theoretical backgrounds have begun to focus on positive development from late adolescence on. ... Verstehen (also known as Interpretative Sociology, German for understanding, pronounced as though it rhymes with fair-stain) was used by Max Weber to describe a process in which outside observers of a culture (such as anthropologists) relate to an indigenous people on the observers own terms. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The field of behavioral psychology has been greatly influenced by the study of genetics. ... The Society was founded in 1978 by Michael Lamport Commons and John Anthony Nevin. ...

External links

• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Behaviorism
• Books and Journal Articles On Behaviorism
• http://www.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/genetics/behavior/learning/behaviorism.html
• http://www.bfskinner.org
• http://www.behavior.org
• http://www.scienceofbehavior.com
• The Behaviorist Approach on LearnPsychology glossary
• http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Theories
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
• http://www.abainternational.org
• http://www.apa.org/divisions/div25/
• Association for Behavior Analysis
• behaviorMachine.com - Behavior Analysis for Everyone
• Theory of Behavioral Anthropology (Documents No. 9 and 10 in English)
• California Association for Behavior Analysis
• http://adultdevelopment.org/ Society for Research in Adult Development

Notes

1. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1959). "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language (35): 26-58. 
2. ^ Skinner, B. F. (1972). "I Have Been Misunderstood...". Center Magazine (March-April): 63. 
3. ^ MacCorquodale, Kenneth (1970). "On Chomsky's Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior: 83-99. 

Further reading

• Baum, W. M. (2005) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell.
• Ferster, C. B., and Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Mills, John A., Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York University Press 2000
• Lattal, K.A and Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum
• Plotnik, Rod. (2005) Introduction to Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9)
• Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
• Skinner, B.F., Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Skinner, B. F. (1945). The operational analysis of psychological terms. Psychological Review. 52, 270-277, 290-294.
• Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) Online version
• Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts
• Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by consequences. Science, 213, 501-514.
• Staddon, J. (2001) The new behaviorism: Mind, mechanism and society. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Pp. xiii, 1-211.
• Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177. (on-line)
• Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist
• Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism
• Zuriff, G. E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction, Columbia University Press

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