The following reflects the current beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses. As such, it reflects the point of view of Jehovah's Witnesses. As of August 2005, Jehovahs Witnesses have a reported membership of more than 6. ... The history of Jehovahs Witnesses dates from about 1870 when Charles Taze Russell began to lead a Bible study group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. ... Jehovahs Witnesses are organized into a hierarchy. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Bible verses quoted from the New World Translation except where noted The spiritual authority among Jehovahs Witnesses is vested in the Faithful and Discreet Slave, which is a term used to refer to the remaining (living) portion of the group of 144,000 people with a heavenly hope. ... A number of corporations are in use by Jehovahs Witnesses. ... Jehovahs Witnesses face legal or governmental opposition in many countries. ... The eschatology of Jehovahs Witnesses is central to their religious beliefs. ... It has been suggested that Jehovahs Witnesses: Controversial Issues be merged into this article or section. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... It has been suggested that Yahweh be merged into this article or section. ... Throughout the history of Jehovahs Witnesses, their history, their beliefs, doctrines and practices have met controversy and opposition from the local governments, communities, or religious groups. ... Jehovahs Witnesses have beliefs and practices that are commonly regarded as controversial; by mainstream Christians for their doctrines that differ from mainstream Christianity; by governments for their refusal to participate in patriotic activities; and by the general public for their beliefs about blood transfusions and their treatment of members... Charles Russell in 1911 Charles Taze Russell (February 16, 1852 – October 31, 1916), known as Pastor Russell, was an American evangelist from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania who founded what is known as the Bible Student movement. ... William Miller William Miller (1782 - 1849) was an American Baptist preacher, whose followers have been termed Millerites. ... Nelson H. Barbour, (1824-1905) a Millerite Adventist (see Millerites) born in Throopsville (misspelled Toupsville in a newspaper profile), a village near Auburn, New York. ... Elder Jonas Wendell (December 25, 1815 - August 14, 1873) of Edenboro, Pennsylvania, was a zealous Adventist preacher following in the spirit of William Miller. ... A range of participation is represented by these individuals, from full activity to disaffiliation. ... Milton George Henschel (August 9, 1920 - March 22, 2003) was the person who succeded Frederick W. Franz as the president of Watchtower Society. ... Joseph F. Rutherford Joseph Franklin Rutherford 8 November 1869—8 January 1942, is best known as the second president of the Watch Tower Society, the legal organization used by Jehovahs Witnesses. ... Frederick William Franz - (12 September 1893–22 December 1992) served as President of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, the legal organization used to direct the work of Jehovahs Witnesses. ... Don A. Adams is the current president of the Watch Tower Society, the most important of the Legal instruments of Jehovahs Witnesses. ... Nathan Homer Knorr (April 23, 1905 - June 8, 1977) was the third president of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society doing so on January 13, 1942, replacing Joseph Franklin Rutherford, who had served in the position since 1916. ... Raymond Franz, circa 1980 Raymond Franz was a member of the Governing Body of Jehovahs Witnesses from 1971 until May 22, 1980[1], and served at the organizations world headquarters for fifteen years, from 1965 until 1980. ...

Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses

The beliefs and doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are based on the Biblical studies and interpretations conducted by the founders and leaders of the movement.

Origins

After the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a "Great Apostasy", from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Influenced by Restorationism, their faith is a continually improving, imperfect restoration of first-century Christianity. The true understanding of the scriptures began to be reassembled by Charles Taze Russell and his associates when they formed a Bible study group in the 1870s in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, and had until then been imperfectly represented since the "Great Apostasy" by a number of historical Christian groups.^[1] Although the Witnesses' teachings have changed significantly over the years, Jehovah's Witnesses have consistently claimed to be the only true religion.^[2] The Twelve Apostles (in Koine Greek απόστολος apostolos [1], someone sent forth/sent out, an emissary) were probably Galilean Jewish men (10 names are Aramaic, 4 names are Greek) chosen from among the disciples, who were sent forth by Jesus of Nazareth to preach the Gospel to both Jews and Gentiles... St. ... The Great Apostasy is a disparaging term used by some religious groups to allege a general fallen state of traditional Christianity, or especially of Catholicism, magisterial Protestantism and Eastern Orthodoxy, that it is not representative of the faith founded by Jesus and promulgated through his twelve Apostles: in short, that... For other usages, see Dispensationalism, Restoration Movement, and Restoration Restorationism refers to unaffiliated religious movements that attempted to circumvent Protestant denominationalism and orthodox Christian creeds to restore Christianity to their constructions of its original form. ... Charles Russell in 1911 Charles Taze Russell (February 16, 1852 – October 31, 1916), known as Pastor Russell, was an American evangelist from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania who founded what is known as the Bible Student movement. ... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ... Allegheny was a city in western Pennsylvania, located on the north shore of the junction of the Allegheny and Ohio Rivers, across from Pittsburgh. ... Official language(s) English, Pennsylvania Dutch Capital Harrisburg Largest city Philadelphia Area  Ranked 33rd  - Total 46,055 sq mi (119,283 km²)  - Width 280 miles (455 km)  - Length 160 miles (255 km)  - % water 2. ...

Bible

The entire Protestant canon of scripture is seen as the inspired, inerrant word of God. A literal interpretation of the Bible is favored, though Bible writers and characters employed symbology, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism^[3] The book of Genesis is taken literally, and evolution is rejected.^[4] While Genesis is taken literally, they do not believe the creation days would be limited to 24 hour periods or that earth didn't exist before the first "day" of creation^[5] The Old Testament or Hebrew Scriptures tell the history of the people of Israel as the beneficiaries of God's covenant and recipients of His Law, and prophesy the coming of Jesus Christ^[6] The New Testament or Greek Scriptures is a historical account of Jesus and the early Christians. The New Testament primarily is directed to those who hope for a resurrection in heaven, or 144,000.^[7] A biblical canon is a list published by a religious authority of those books of the Bible that are considered inspired by God. ... Note: Judaism commonly uses the term Tanakh. ... An Israelite is a member of the Twelve Tribes of Israel, descended from the twelve sons of the Biblical patriarch Jacob who was renamed Israel by God in the book of Genesis, 32:28 The Israelites were a group of Hebrews, as described in the Bible. ... Covenant, in its most general sense, is a solemn and bilateral promise to do or not do something specified. ... This article or section seems to describe future events as if they have already occurred. ... John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... 144,000 is a positive whole integer between 100,000 and 200,000. ...

See also: New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures

The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT) is a modern-language translation of the Bible published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. ...

Basis for beliefs

Principal is the doctrine of sola scriptura, that is, only the Bible should be used for deciding issues of doctrine. The interpretation and application of scripture is the responsibility of the Governing Body. These ones represent the Faithful and Discreet Slave and are being directed by Jesus Christ.^[8] All members are expected to abide by the doctrines and organizational requirements as determined by the Governing Body.^[9] Sola scriptura (Latin ablative, by scripture alone) is the assertion that the Bible as Gods written word is self-authenticating, clear (perspicuous) to the rational reader, its own interpreter (Scripture interprets Scripture), and sufficient of itself to be the only source of Christian doctrine. ... Jehovahs Witnesses are organized into a hierarchy. ... Bible verses quoted from the New World Translation except where noted The spiritual authority among Jehovahs Witnesses is vested in the Faithful and Discreet Slave, which is a term used to refer to the remaining (living) portion of the group of 144,000 people with a heavenly hope. ...

The nature of God

God is the creator and supreme being. Using God's name, as derived from the Tetragrammaton (Jehovah in English), is vital for true worship.^[10] The Holy Spirit is God's means of acting, not the uncreated third person of the Trinity^[11] It has been suggested that Yahweh be merged into this article or section. ... Jehovah is an English transcription of יְהֹוָה, a specific vocalized spelling of יהוה which is found in the Masoretic Text. ... In Christian religions that trace their roots to belief in the Nicene Creed, the Holy Spirit (Hebrew: Ruah haqodesh; Greek: ; Latin: ; also called the Holy Ghost) is the third consubstantial Person of the Holy Trinity or the Godhead. ... For other uses, see Trinity (disambiguation). ...

The nature of Christ

Jesus is God's first creation. Jesus was used by God to create every other creation.^[12] Jesus was also known as the Archangel Michael in his pre-human existence; his birth on earth was accomplished when he willingly allowed himself to be transferred, by God, from heaven to the womb of the Virgin Mary.^[13] While on earth, Jesus was executed for mankind's sins upon a single beamed torture stake. The cross is rejected as a symbol for Christ's death, and instead seen as a later pagan addition.^[14] After his death Jesus appeared to his disciples and convinced them of his resurrection, and then ascended into heaven to sit at the right hand of Jehovah. Jesus acts as the mediator of the "new covenant" for those going to heaven (the 144,000).^[15] Mary was not perpetually virgin, but rather bore more children after Jesus.^[16] This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Saint Mary and Saint Mary the Virgin both redirect here. ... The perpetual virginity of Mary is a doctrine of faith of Roman and Eastern Orthodox Catholic Christianity, as well of Islam, stating that Mary, the mother of Jesus, remained an actual virgin, implying both virginal disposition and physical integrity, before, during, and after the birth of Jesus, and thus is...

Eschatology

Main article: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses

The "seven times" of Daniel 4:10-17 are interpreted as a 2,520 year period from 607 BC to 1914 AD, referred to as the "Gentile Times"^[17] 607 BC marked the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem based on the belief that 70 years transpired from destruction of Jerusalem to return of captives from Babylon.^[18] In 1914, Jesus' invisible enthronement as King in Heaven was followed by an inspection period of all religions. In 1918 Jesus resurrected those of the 144,000 (the "anointed") who had already died to heavenly life; since 1918, any "anointed" are individually resurrected to heavenly life at the time of their death^[19] In 1919, Jehovah's Witnesses were chosen by Jesus as the only true Christian organization.^[20] The eschatology of Jehovahs Witnesses is central to their religious beliefs. ... Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC - 600s BC - 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC Events and Trends Fall of the Assyrian Empire and Rise of Babylon 609 BC _ King Josiah... The Jerusalem Temple (Hebrew: beit ha-mikdash) was the center of Israelite and Jewish worship, primarily for the offering of sacrifices known as the korbanot. ... For other uses, see Jerusalem (disambiguation). ... Bible verses quoted from the New World Translation except where noted The spiritual authority among Jehovahs Witnesses is vested in the Faithful and Discreet Slave, which is a term used to refer to the remaining (living) portion of the group of 144,000 people with a heavenly hope. ...

The "last days" began in 1914.^[21] Soon, all other religions will be destroyed by the United Nations.^[22] After this, Jehovah's Witnesses will come under attack. Armageddon immediately follows.^[23] All governments, which are under Satan's control, will then be destroyed.^[24]

Salvation

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation

All humanity is in a sinful state (see: Sin).^[25] Release from this is possible through the death of Jesus. His death atoned for the sins of humankind.^[26] To be saved, one needs faith. It is only by the undeserved kindness (grace) of God which through which one can attain this; works are evidence of faith and cannot gain salvation.^[27] There are two destinations for those saved by God. The number of Christians going to heaven is limited to precisely 144,000 (the "anointed") where they will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over Earth.^[28] Everyone else who qualifies for salvation living today will survive the coming battle of Armageddon and have the prospect of living forever in an earthly paradise.^[29] Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the only scriptural hope of surviving Armageddon comes through adherence of the biblical teachings, including faith in Jesus' shed blood. Those who do not, face destruction at Armageddon.^{[30][31][32][33][34]} The fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, remains indeterminate.^[35] After Armageddon, an unknown number of dead people will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever, but those who have already been judged by God will not, such as any killed at Armageddon.^[36] Christ will rule for a thousand years, during which time the Earth will be transformed into a paradise, while Satan is abyssed and unable to influence mankind. At the end of the thousand years, Satan will be released, and the final judgment will take place during which Satan and all those corrupted by him will be destroyed forever, with evil never occurring again.^[37] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Sin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral rule, or the state of having committed such a violation. ... Substitutionary atonement is the act of restoring balances by substitution. ... In Christianity, divine grace refers to the sovereign favour of God for humankind — especially in regard to salvation — irrespective of actions (deeds), earned worth, or proven goodness. ... Bible verses quoted from the New World Translation except where noted The spiritual authority among Jehovahs Witnesses is vested in the Faithful and Discreet Slave, which is a term used to refer to the remaining (living) portion of the group of 144,000 people with a heavenly hope. ... The evangelist John of Patmos writes the Book of Revelation. ...

Discipline

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline

Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders. In the event an accusation is made concerning a baptized member, if there is sufficient evidence, a tribunal or judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, administer help and possibly apply sanctions. There are three possible formal sanctions that are applied. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Marking is one sort of discipline. Someone who chooses a course that is deemed unscriptural, but for which the standard of disfellowshipping would not apply, would be marked. Though such a one would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would generally be restricted. The intent of this cutting off of social fellowship is to shame that person into a course considered proper. Generally, a talk would be given at the Service Meeting outlining the shameful course, but without explicitly naming the wrongdoer.^[38]

Reproof involves sins which are more serious than those for which one would be marked. Reproof is given "before all onlookers." If the sin is private, the reproof would be private. If the sin is known by a small number, they would be invited by the elders, then reproof would be given before both the sinner and those with knowledge of the sin. If the sin is known generally by the entire congregation an announcement of public reproof would be given. A talk is generally given in the case of public reproof, where the wrong course is outlined, but without explicitly naming the people involved.^[39] Reproof is usually linked with a probationary period.^[40] Restrictions may include not sharing in meeting parts, not commenting at meeting parts and not praying for a group. The length of the probation period is dependent upon the elders. One cannot pioneer or auxiliary pioneer for at least one year after reproof is given.^[41]

Disfellowshipping, or excommunication, is the most severe discipline administered. This is done at the determination of the judicial committee. The standard put in place to determine if one should be disfellowshipped is the judgment of repentance. To judge repentance, members of the judicial committee ask questions and review actions by the member being considered. The committee must be convinced without a doubt that the repentance is genuine.^[42] Baptized members who express disagreement on any Bible doctrine can potentially be disfellowshipped for apostasy.^[9] Once the decision to disfellowship has been made a person has seven days to appeal. After the seven days, if the person has not appealed, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the congregation; disfellowshipping does not take effect until the announcement is made to the congregation.^[43] After one is disfellowshipped, all baptized members would cut off all association with that person. They would not speak to such a one, or acknowledge him or her.^[44] There are two exceptions. First if a member was forced to have commercial dealings with a member who is disfellowshipped, these would continue as before. Second, if the disfellowshipped member is living with family members who are baptized, they could continue to associate with this one, but are not to speak about matters pertaining to the religion. The extent to which disfellowshipped or disassociated relatives living in the same household would be included in family life would be left to the discretion of the family.^[45] Family members living outside the home who are disfellowshipped, would have minimal contact.^[46][47] In the case of doctrinal disagreements, and depending upon the nature and publicity of their disagreement, they may be labelled as an "apostate."^[48] Apostasy (from Greek αποστασία, meaning a defection or revolt , from απο, apo, away, apart, στασις, stasis, standing) is a term generally employed to describe the formal renunciation of ones religion, especially if the motive is deemed unworthy. ...

Practices

Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses include activities common to many Christian denominations, such as evangelism, gathering for group worship and study, and donating money to support their religious activities. This section discusses how the doctrines as well as non-doctrinal organizational and cultural arrangements manifest themselves in the practices and stances of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Worship

Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized into congregations, and each congregation has weekly meetings. Men are selected by representatives of the Governing Body to teach and direct the preaching work. Women cannot be teachers in the congregation; though female Witnesses do participate in meeting programs.^[49] Prayer is featured at these meetings. Prayers are given at meals as well. Private prayers are given as desired. For a prayer to be acceptable, they must be made to the Father Jehovah in the name of the Son.^[50] The use of idols is prohibited. They reject the veneration of Mary, the saints, or the cross.^[51] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2672x1872, 3925 KB) Summary Kingdom Hall of Jehovahs Witnesses. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2672x1872, 3925 KB) Summary Kingdom Hall of Jehovahs Witnesses. ... Jehovah is an English transcription of יְהֹוָה, a specific vocalized spelling of יהוה which is found in the Masoretic Text. ... Saint Mary and Saint Mary the Virgin both redirect here. ...

Jehovah's Witnesses typically have three gatherings each week, which are made up of five meetings, totaling approximately five hours. Meetings are held in local Kingdom Halls and private homes. There are three conventions held annually in facilities owned or maintained by the Watchtower Society or in rented stadiums or auditoriums. Throughout the week, there are also meetings to organize the preaching work where members meet either in homes or Kingdom Halls to organize and pray prior to engaging in evangelism. On Saturday mornings, publishers are usually expected to engage in preaching activity. Watchtower and Awake! magazines are featured, though from time to time, various campaigns are arranged with specific literature offers.^[52] Each month, a report is submitted to the congregation elders indicating the number of hours in the ministry, along with other details, and is required to be officially counted as a Jehovah's Witness. On a daily basis, Jehovah's Witnesses are encouraged to read the Bible and read publications such as Examining the Scriptures Daily, a booklet with a biblical scripture and commentary. Kingdom Hall is the name of meeting places for Jehovahs Witnesses. ...

The most important event is the celebration of the Lord's Supper held once a year after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar. Only those claiming to be of the "remnant", those who expect to be resurrected in heaven, partake of the unleavened bread and wine. Others simply observe the proceedings without partaking.^[53] They do not believe in transubstantiation and consubstantiation (of the Eucharist)^[54] Bible verses quoted from the New World Translation except where noted The spiritual authority among Jehovahs Witnesses is vested in the Faithful and Discreet Slave, which is a term used to refer to the remaining (living) portion of the group of 144,000 people with a heavenly hope. ... Main article: Eucharist (Catholic Church) Transubstantiation (in Latin, transsubstantiatio) is the change of the substance of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ occurring in the Eucharist according to the teaching of some Christian Churches, including the Roman Catholic Church. ... Consubstantiation is a theory which (like the competing theory of transubstantiation, with which it is often contrasted) attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in terms of philosophical metaphysics. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ...

To become a Jehovah's Witness, one must submit to a catechism, or series of questions to determine eligibility for baptism. Baptisms are normally performed at conventions. Codex Manesse, fol. ... Baptism in early Christian art. ...

Memorial of Christ's death

See also: Eucharist

Jehovah's Witnesses commemorate Christ's death as a ransom or propitiatory sacrifice by observing The Lord's Evening Meal, or Memorial, each year on Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish calendar. As the date is calculated from the moon calendar, the corresponding Gregorian Date changes every year. For 2007, this date fell on April 2^th. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that this is the only celebration commanded for Christians in the Bible. In support, they often cite Jesus' words found at 1 Corinthians 11:24, 25, NWT, "'Keep doing this ... in remembrance of me.'" Of those who attend the Memorial a small minority worldwide will partake of the eating of the unleavened bread and the drinking of the wine. (For statistics of the number of partakers in relationship to non-partakers, see Jehovah's Witnesses (Membership)) For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... Quartodecimanism (fourteenism) was the practice of fixing the date of Easter (in the Bible called Pesach) to the 14th day of Nisan in the Bibles Hebrew Calendar which, according to the Gospels, was the time Jesus was crucified in Jerusalem. ... The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world. ... The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT) is a modern-language translation of the Bible published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. ... Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York Jehovahs Witnesses are an international religious organization headquartered in the United States with roots in the 19th century Millerite and Bible Student movements. ...

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only those with a heavenly hope can partake of the bread and wine. The persons who actually partake, are in general considered of the "anointed," though Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some of them may be in error.

The celebration of the Memorial of Christ's Death proceeds as follows: In advance of the Memorial, Jehovah's Witnesses invite anyone that may be interested to attend this special night. The week of the Memorial is generally filled with special activity in the ministry (e.g. door-to-door work). A suitable hall, for example a Kingdom Hall, is prepared for the occasion. The Memorial begins with a song and a prayer. The prayer is followed by a discourse on the importance of the evening. A table is set with wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread stands for Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine stands for his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Hence, the wine and the bread are merely symbols (sometimes referred to as "emblems"), but they have a very deep and profound meaning for Jehovah's Witnesses. A prayer is offered and the bread is circulated among the audience. Only those who are anointed partake. Since many congregations includes no anointed, it is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers. Then another prayer is offered, and the wine is circulated in the same manner. After that, the evening concludes with a final song and prayer. hehe :>

Kingdom Halls and Assembly Halls

Jehovah's Witnesses call their meeting places "Kingdom Halls" instead of churches, to indicate that the gathering of the congregation is what is important, not the physical location itself. Another reason is that they deem the use of the term church to now be largely confusing and inaccurate because the term in its Biblical context actually refers to a gathering or a "congregation" of people and not to the meeting place or the building itself (see the etymology of the word). In general, the buildings are functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. Kingdom Hall is the name of meeting places for Jehovahs Witnesses. ... St. ... St. ... St. ...

In many countries, the Witnesses have "Assembly Halls" where about twenty congregations meet two or three times a year for one-day or two-day Assemblies. In countries and areas without such Assembly Halls, or when attendance is expected to exceed seating capacity, the annual assemblies are held in borrowed or rented facilities suitable for the purpose, such as public auditoriums. Seating capacity refers to the number of people who can be seated in a specific space, either in terms of the space available, or in terms of limitations set by law. ...

The Assembly Halls are typically too small to accommodate the larger "District Conventions" and "International Conventions." Once a year Jehovah's Witnesses come together at larger assemblies called "District Conventions" which are usually three days long. Every fifth year "International Conventions", with visiting delegates from a number of foreign countries usually lasting three to four days, are held in selected cities. The attendance of some "International Conventions" number into the hundreds of thousands with the largest-ever gathering held in New York in 1958 at the Yankee Stadium and Polo Grounds with a peak attendance exceeding 250,000.

The great majority of the Kingdom Halls and Assembly Halls, as well as the Watchtower Society's headquarters and branch office facilities around the world, have been constructed by the Witnesses themselves freely contributing their own time. The needed finances come from voluntary contributions made by Jehovah's Witness members according to each one's means and inclination.

Meetings

Congregation meetings^[55] are held three times a week. All meetings are generally synchronous, so that all congregations are studying the same material at the same meeting. Meetings of Jehovah's Witnesses open and close with prayer. Hymns called Kingdom songs are usually sung at meetings held in the Kingdom Hall, as well as at assemblies and conventions. Dress for meetings is local formal attire. For instance in most Western countries this would consist of a suit and tie for males, and conservative dresses/skirts for females (pants are considered inappropriate for meetings). Meetings are free to attend, and are open to the public. Mary Magdalene in prayer. ... Kingdom songs or Kingdom melodies are the religious songs used by Jehovahs Witnesses. ...

The Theocratic Ministry School

On a weekday evening (commonly a Thursday although due to some congregations sharing facilities other days are often used), the 'Theocratic Ministry School' is held. The School is designed to train Publishers to be more effective in their ministry. The publishers are trained in how to use the Bible. Over the course of a few years, the entire Bible is discussed and part of it is read aloud. The publishers are encouraged to read the rest personally. Then practical training is given on how to give a short public talk, doing Bible research, and presenting material to people one might meet in the public ministry. Enrollment is voluntary and open to all congregation members in good standing. Students in the school receive assignments on a rotating basis. At each meeting, six students give brief speeches on pre-selected Bible topics, (although there could be auxiliary classrooms, each having 3 additional students) and an instructor comments on the speech and offers commendation on specific points of delivery. Additional constructive criticism is sometimes given privately. The Theocratic Ministry School is 45 minutes in length and is usually followed immediately (with a transitional song) by the Service Meeting. Jehovahs Witnesses are organized into a hierarchy. ...

The Service Meeting

This is followed by the 'Service Meeting', a training program for their preaching work. This forty-five minute meeting gives the publishers practical instructions that will help them to become more efficient in carrying on their house-to-house ministry. The program provides a variety of methods for instructing and teaching. There are talks, demonstrations, question-and-answer parts, interviews and discussions between two or more persons. Our Kingdom Ministry, a monthly publication of Jehovah's Witnesses, outlines the material to be covered during the Service Meeting.

The Public Talk

A qualified elder or ministerial servant delivers a discourse on a Bible-based subject. The speaker may be from the local congregation or from another congregation, usually nearby. This Public Meeting is generally held on Sundays, but can be on another day if that is more convenient for the congregation (this is most usual when more than 4 congregations share a Kingdom Hall). This talk is particularly directed toward interested members of the public who are not Jehovah's Witnesses, but is of interest to Jehovah' Witnesses as well. This meeting is 45 minutes in length, and is usually followed immediately after (with a transitional song) by the Watchtower Study.

The Watchtower Study

Generally following the Public Talk, after the intermission of a Kingdom Song, is the Watchtower Study. The Bible is studied with the aid of an article in the Watchtower magazine. An experienced elder (the Watchtower Study Conductor) leads the discussion from the platform. Each paragraph is read by a fluent reader who is a 'brother in good standing' and is assigned by the conductor for that week. Questions included in the article for that paragraph are then posed to the audience. After calling on one or more in attendance to express themselves on that question, the conductor will often ask follow-up questions of his own or offer comments himself before moving to the next paragraph. Many of the numerous scriptures cited in the study article will be read aloud by called-on members of the audience. Four or five review questions are typically asked at the end of an article. The Public Talk and Watchtower Study together usually last 2 hours from opening prayer to closing prayer.

The Book Study

At a separate time during the week the 'Congregation Book Study' is held, for which Witnesses meet in small groups of about 10 to 15, usually in the private homes of members, and typically lasting an hour. Spiritual topics are covered using a study book or a brochure prepared by Jehovah's Witnesses and Bible. The material usually has some questions prepared, and a discussion is encouraged starting with these questions. The Q&A format and conductor-reader arrangement is similar to the Watchtower study, but the meeting format is smaller and more interactive. The elder (or, if there are not enough elders in the congregation to conduct each book study, ministerial servant) who serves as conductor for a book study group is generally loosely responsible for 'shepherding' those publishers who attend it and for organizing field service meetings and arrangements for them. In some lands exercising a ban on the activity of Jehovah's Witnesses, such book study groups become "mini-congregations" that meet individually for all meetings except on occasion. This allows their activity to go relatively unnoticed by governmental authorities as would larger gatherings.

Morality

Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views. Abortion is considered murder.^[56] Homosexuality and premarital sex are considered sins.^[57] Modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming. During worship, standards of dress are more formal, varying by country and regional custom. In the U.S., Europe, and most of Asia, this typically consists of formal western business attire. Entertainment with sexuality, materialism, spiritualism or violence is strongly discouraged. Though they are nonconformists in some ways, they seek not to appear to be "counter-cultural." They avoid appearing unkempt or unprofessional according to local norms. Therefore, in certain areas, personal grooming such as beards, long hair or earrings for men, along with any dress or grooming that is deemed to be rebellious or immodest is discouraged in everyday settings. A person violating these guidelines would not have any action taken against them, but neither would they be allowed to serve with special privileges in the congregation. Including, but not limited to, giving public talks, giving talks in the Theocratic Ministry School, handling the microphones and sound system (if available), and opening and closing with a prayer. This article or section cites very few or no references or sources. ... Materialism refers to how a person or group chooses to spend their resources, particularly money and time. ... By 1853, when the popular song Spirit Rappings was published, Spiritualism was the object of intense curiosity. ... In sociology, counterculture is a term used to describe a cultural group whose values and norms are at odds with those of the social mainstream. ...

Nationalism and holidays

Among Jehovah's Witnesses, there is an avoidance of practices considered to have nationalistic or false religious origins. Examples include not singing the national anthem or not saying "bless you" when someone sneezes. Distinctive titles in address (such as Father, Pastor, Reverend, etc) are not employed. Witnesses address one another as "Brother" or "Sister", often followed by the first or last name of the individual. Despite varied positions of service, these are not used as a title to address the person by, such as in the case, "Elder John".

Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed. Common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas are regarded as pagan and not celebrated.^[58][59] A birthday is the date on which a person was born. ... The First Thanksgiving, painted by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (1863-1930). ... Christmas is an annual holiday that marks the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. ...

Family life

The family structure is patriarchal. Husbands are considered the final authority of family decisions. He is the head of his family. He must only have one wife. Wives should be submissive to their husbands and husbands are to have deep respect and love for their wives.^[60] Husbands are instructed to treat their wives as Jesus treated his followers. He should not hurt or mistreat his family in any way. The father should be hardworking in providing necessities to his family. He must also provide for them in a spiritual capacity. This includes religious instruction for the family, and taking the lead in preaching activities.

Parental discipline for children should not be in a harsh, cruel way. Children are instructed to obey their parents.

Married couples are encouraged to speak with local elders if they are having problems. Married couples can separate in the case of physical abuse and neglect, and if one partner attempts to hinder the other from being a Jehovah's Witness. Divorce (with the ability to remarry) is permissible only on the grounds of adultery.

Neutrality

Although in general respecting the law of the land, Jehovah's Witnesses do not salute flags, sing national anthems, or pledge allegiance to any state or nation. This is not intended as disrespect for any particular nation or for governments; Witnesses recognize the legitimacy of political leaders, believing that they are the "superior authorities" referred to by the Apostle Paul in Romans 13:1 (NWT), and are therefore to be respected. Indeed, in many places, the Witnesses have been commended for their law-abiding stance. They make a distinction, however, between a show of respect and what they consider to be a manifestation of worship. Jehovah's Witnesses feel that saluting a flag or singing a national anthem crosses the dividing line between the two. This is because they believe they owe allegiance solely to Jehovah (God), that he alone may be worshipped.^[61] A salute is a gesture or other action used to display respect. ... The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT) is a modern-language translation of the Bible published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. ...

For Jehovah's Witnesses, neutrality is defined as:

"The position of those who do not take sides with, or give support to, any of two or more contending parties. It is a fact of ancient and modern-day history that in every nation and under all circumstances true Christians have endeavored to maintain complete neutrality as to conflicts between factions of the world. They do not interfere with what others do about sharing in patriotic ceremonies, serving in the armed forces, joining a political party, running for a political office, or voting." - (Reasoning from the Scriptures, pages 269-270)

In this regard, Jehovah's Witnesses feel that their position is similar to that of the early Christians, who refused to sacrifice a few drops of wine or a few grains of incense to the Roman emperors even when faced with execution. This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Saluting flags

Among the results of this belief in the United States are several cases of Constitutional law regarding the Pledge of Allegiance. The early cases establishing that government schools cannot mandate the Pledge, or the salute to the flag, all involved Witness students punished or threatened for their refusal. Students reciting the Pledge at Rafael Weill Elementary School, San Francisco, California, April 20, 1942 prior to Japanese American internment (photo by Dorothea Lange) [1] The Pledge of Allegiance is a promise or oath of allegiance to the United States as represented by its national flag. ...

Some courts in other countries have also protected the Witnesses' right to abstain from patriotic ceremonies. For example, in 1986, the Supreme Court of India held that no one can be forced to join in the singing of the national anthem if the person has a genuine, conscientious religious objection.

In a decision handed down on 1 March 1993, the Philippine Supreme Court ruled unanimously in favor of Jehovah's Witnesses in a case involving Witness youths who were expelled from school because they respectfully declined to salute the flag. March 1 is the 60th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (61st in leap years). ... 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ...

Military service

Additionally, Jehovah's Witnesses refuse to serve in military organizations, citing the principle they call Christian Neutrality. They understand Jesus' words , "They are no part of the world, just as I am no part of the world," to mean that they should take a neutral stand concerning political and military controversies.^[62]

Historically, this refusal to join the military has created serious difficulties for Jehovah's Witnesses, particularly in war time. During World War II, young Witnesses in a number of countries were executed for their conscientious objection to war; even in more democratic countries they were generally refused exemption from conscription and have often been imprisoned.

Currently, there is less conflict between Witnesses and most governments over this matter, as many countries have abolished conscription, whereas others have recognized the views of conscientious objectors and thus instituted the right to alternative civilian service, which Witnesses generally accept. In certain republics of the former Soviet Union, however, as well as in South Korea, Singapore, and some countries in Africa, young Witness males continue to serve prison terms in connection with this issue. As of December 15th, 2005 there were 1044 Witnesses imprisoned over this issue in South Korea.

During World War II Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted by the Allies and the Axis powers for refusing to participate in these powers' respective war efforts. (See Jehovah's Witnesses and the Holocaust). Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Jehovahs Witnesses in Germany were persecuted between 1933 and 1945. ...

Jehovah's Witnesses are not pacifists, that is to say, they are not opposed to the use of violence in all circumstances. They believe, for instance, that the wars between the ancient nation of Israel and surrounding nations were legitimate, and point out that passages in both the Old and New Testaments refer to God using warlike methods at times. However, they do not believe God is using or supporting wars in modern times, and therefore do not participate in wars. Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes. ...

Political activity

In harmony with the principle of Christian neutrality, referred to above, Jehovah's Witnesses are discouraged from voting in elections, but not prohibited from voting. (Watchtower 1 Nov 1999. p.28) They do not however run for any political office. On the other hand, they do not seek to prevent or discourage others (non-Witnesses) from doing so, if they so desire.

Death

The soul is believed to be mortal, and that death is a state of non-existence (based on Ezekiel 18:4)^[63] Hell (hades or sheol) is not a place of fiery torment, but rather the common grave of mankind, a place of unconsciousness.^[64] Those not saved are annihilated (cease of existence) as opposed to damned (eternal existence in hell).^[65] The dead cannot hurt us, because they are dead, and are not able to feel anything. The soul does not continue to live, after one dies. Sometimes wicked angels (demons) pretend to be spirits of the dead. Any form of worship, customs, or even fear of the dead are wrong. The hope for life after death is in the resurrection, a relatively small number to a heavenly life to be priestly rulers under Christ, and the vast majority to everlasting life on a paradise earth. Medieval illustration of Hell in the Hortus deliciarum manuscript of Herrad of Landsberg (about 1180) Hell, according to many religious beliefs, is an afterlife of suffering where the wicked or unrighteous dead are punished. ...

Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood

See also: Jehovah's Witnesses: Controversial issues

As the main legal entity used by Jehovah’s Witnesses, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania teaches that the Bible prohibits the consumption, storage and transfusion of blood, including in cases of emergency. The Watchtower introduced this view in 1945, and it has developed since then. Accordingly the organization has established Hospital Information Services responsible for education on and facilitation of “bloodless surgery.” This service also maintains Hospital Liaison Committees whose function is to provide support to adherents facing surgery and assist in providing information to the medical community on bloodless surgery techniques and alternatives to blood. It has been suggested that Jehovahs Witnesses: Controversial Issues be merged into this article or section. ... WT-Logo The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, headquartered in New York City, is the corporate entity of the Jehovah’s Witnesses religion. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday. ... The last twenty years have witnessed a surge of interest in bloodless surgery, for a variety of reasons. ...

Though accepted by the majority of members, some within the Jehovah's Witness community do not endorse the doctrine.^[66] Historically the doctrine has drawn criticism from members of the medical community however many professionals worldwide now acknowledge the benefits from avoiding the use of blood during surgery and therefore routinely utilize bloodless surgery techniques on Jehovah's Witnesses and non believers alike.^{[citation needed]}

Gambling

Gambling by making money through the losses of others is viewed as a "form of greed" a thus not acceptable. "If you wish to please Jehovah, then, you will refrain from any form of gambling, including lotteries, bingo, and betting on horse races."^[67] However, some risks are acceptable, such as buying stocks, shares and bonds. A person violating these standards would risk "bringing reproach upon the congregation" and may be excommunicated. Even doing a cleaning job like sweeping the floor at a casino, while not specifically forbidden, would be frowned upon.^[68]

Drugs and Alcohol

Jehovah's Witnesses prohibit non-medicinal use of most drugs, and believe that recreational drug use is connected to spiritism. Consuming alcohol is permitted, though excessive alcohol consumption and drunkenness are prohibited and can result in disfellowshipping for members.

Publishing efforts

Jehovah's Witnesses make vigorous efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world in a variety of ways, with particular emphasis on the written word. Their literature is published in 410 languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications. Their publications make extensive use of secular references and quotations from the Bible. A chained book in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University A book is a set or collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other material, usually fastened together to hinge at one side, and within protective covers. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Both The Watchtower and Awake! are published simultaneously in dozens of languages. In addition to the formats mentioned above, both magazines are available in various audio and electronic formats and some of the articles from these magazines are available online. After the end of each year the issues are collected and re-released in a printed annual edition, commonly referred to as a bound volume. In addition to this, the Watchtower Library computer program contains several decades worth of articles for both magazines and is updated on an annual basis. (Until 2003, this was only done biennially.) It also contains many books, booklets, brochures, and other publications of the Witnesses. Look up Biennial in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Biennial is a term referring to a period of two years, much in the same way centennial refers to 100 years. ...

New books, brochures, and other items are released from time to time, major releases being announced at their annual conventions. Additionally, a number of audio cassettes, videocassettes, and DVDs have been produced featuring various aspects of the group's beliefs, practices, organization, and history. Some of these also provide dramas based on various Biblical accounts. Recent years have seen a proliferation of material available on their website. Jehovahs Witnesses are organized into a hierarchy. ... Typical 60-minute Compact Cassette. ... The video cassette recorder (or VCR, less popularly video tape recorder) is a type of video tape recorder that uses removable cassettes containing magnetic tape to record audio and video from a television broadcast so it can be played back later. ... DVD (commonly known as Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) is an optical disc storage media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high video and sound quality. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ...

The sale of their religious magazines, and all Jehovah's Witnesses' literature, continued around the world until the early 1990s. The Watchtower is now distributed free of charge, with a request for donations. These donations have made the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of NY, Inc. one of the top 40 companies (by turnover) in New York, reporting an annual revenue of about $951 million USD[1] free of taxation as they are registered as a non-profit corporation. Their yearly report is different from a Wall Street company as the company's employees are volunteers who live and work in the Brooklyn complex.

Evangelism

As their name implies, Jehovah's Witnesses are well known for their intensive witnessing, or, proselytizing, efforts. Witnesses generally refer to their evangelizing activities by terms such as: "preaching," "disciple-making", "service," "the ministry," and, more formally, but less frequently, "evangelizing". All members (known as "publishers") who are healthy enough are strongly encouraged to go from door to door, participating in this activity to the extent that their circumstances allow, every week if at all possible. Even children are encouraged to participate, accompanied by their parents. A publisher who fails to participate for a month is known as an "irregular publisher"; publishers who have not compiled and turned in a field service report for six consecutive months are known as "inactive publishers". Witnesses who spend at least 840 hours of witnessing during a year (an average of 70 hours per month) are known as "regular pioneers". Witnesses who wish to spend 50 hours per month are known as "auxiliary pioneers" and can serve in this capacity either a month at a time or consecutively. Proselytism is the practice of attempting to convert people to another opinion, usually another religion. ...

Missionary service is another opportunity members have to reach persons in other lands. Those invited to share in such work are usually given specialized training at the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead. These individuals, on an average dedicate over 120 hours a month to their work. As of 1998 there were 2,390 Witnesses having missionary status serving in 148 lands.^[69] Watchtower Bible School of Gilead is the name given to the missionary school of Jehovahs Witnesses. ...

Witnesses have, in the past, used a wide variety of methods to spread their faith, including information marches, where members wore sign boards and handed out leaflets, to sound cars, and syndicated newspaper columns and radio spots devoted to sermons. Between 1924 and 1957, the organization operated a radio station, WBBR, from New York. They discarded this medium largely due to the prevalence of televangelist radio programs to minimize identification with other religious groups. In recent decades, additional methods have included preaching by telephone, at bus stops, places of business and in the street. Specialized territories of residential and commercial areas are made up within a congregation's boundaries and distributed to publishers. In the USA, a televangelist (television evangelist) is a religious minister (often a Christian priest or minister) who devotes a large portion of his (or her) ministry to TV broadcasts to a regular viewing and listening audience. ...

Currently, door-to-door evangelizing for the Witnesses involves endeavouring to engage individuals in discussion of religious matters and offering literature about their faith, with the goal of starting a Bible study with anyone who shows an interest. The production of literature is supported by donations. No financial or material rewards are offered for conversion. Publishers carry forms known as "not-at-home slips" to keep record of those homes that need revisiting at another time when its occupants are at home.

Construction and humanitarian efforts

Jehovah's Witnesses are known in many lands for their building work. International and regional building teams frequently undertake "quick builds", construction of Kingdom Halls over the course of one or two weekends. Larger construction projects, including the building of regional Assembly Halls and Bethel offices, factories, residences, warehouses, and farm facilities, are also carried out almost entirely by volunteer members.

Jehovah's Witnesses are also involved in relief work in disaster stricken areas. One notable example is the relief efforts to both Hutu and Tutsi Witnesses during the genocide in Rwanda as well as to Congo refugees. This humanitarian aid was not given exclusively to Jehovah's Witnesses; others also benefited. For instance, the Witnesses distributed medicine and clothing to several primary schools and an orphanage near Goma.^[70]

Funding of activities

Jehovah's Witnesses fund their activities, such as publishing, constructing and operating facilities, evangelism, and disaster relief via donations. There is no tithing or collection, but all are encouraged to donate to the organization; Witnesses typically provide an opportunity for members of the public to make such donations as they encounter them in their preaching work. Donation boxes labeled for several specific purposes, are located in Kingdom Halls and other meeting facilities. Generally there is a Kingdom Hall fund for operating expenses locally, and a general fund for the "Worldwide Work", which includes the printing of literature, organization of conventions, supporting missionaries and disaster relief. A tithe (from Old English teogotha tenth) is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a religious organization. ...

The accounts (including donations) and the financial operation of the local congregation are reviewed monthly with the entire congregation at the Service Meeting. (This meeting is open to the public.) Donations are also accepted via mail, and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society can be named as a beneficiary to an estate, and also accepts donations in the form of life insurance policies, pension plans, bank accounts, certificates of deposit, retirement accounts, stocks and bonds, real estate, annuities and trusts.

Critical views on beliefs and practices

Basis of authority

Jehovah's Witnesses claim that there is "abundant evidence" of a governing body operating in the first century.^[71] Raymond Franz points to Galatians 1:16-20 as evidence to show that Paul of Tarsus did not view the apostles in Jerusalem as a governing body.^[72] He further contends that the council of Jerusalem was an isolated event,^[73] and that the creation of a central authority in Christianity was a 4th century development.^[74] Paul of Tarsus (b. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Book of Acts, Chapter 15 Council of Jerusalem is a title applied in retrospect to an unnamed meeting described in Acts of the Apostles chapter . ...

Field service

Raymond Franz argues that a sense of guilt is imposed on those not complying with organization arrangements for field service. Further, that engaging in this formal activity became an extra-scriptural requirement placed upon those wanting to qualify for eldership.^[75] Though field service can be counted for activity pertaining to those not witnesses, time spent helping fellow members cannot be counted toward time spent in the ministry.^[76] In essence, claiming: that an individual's spirituallity is measured by how much time they devote to the ministry.^[77]

The expression "house to house" found at Acts 2:42, 5:45, 20:20 is employed by Jehovah's Witnesses to demonstrate the need for door-to-door witnessing. Raymond Franz criticises this application, stating the expression "house to house" (gr. "kat' oikon") does not require the idea of consecutive door-to-door visitation.^[78] He compares 27 Bible translations, showing the more common rendering of "at home", "at your houses" and "in your homes".^[79]

Discipline

Critics contend that fear of being shunned and family break-up/loss causes people to stay who might otherwise freely leave the religion. Jehovah's Witnesses have no provision for conscientious objectors who freely leave to have any continued normal associations. Critics further contend the judicial process itself, due to its private and nearly autonomous nature directly contradicts the precedent found in the Bible and the organizations' own teachings^[80] and can be used in an arbitrary and punitive manner if there is consensus among just a few to abuse their authority.^[81]Also no tape recorders, microphones or any form of record keeping is allowed for the one accused. Witnesses believe that disfellowshipping (excommunicating) and shunning can have the beneficial effect of both restoring an errant former member to the religion and "upholding God's Holy Name".^[82]

Blood

The refusal of blood transfusions has been a significant issue among medical professionals, especially when it involves minor children. Some children of Jehovah's Witnesses have died subsequent to not having blood transfusions. In some countries, laws may impose limitations on physicians on the ability to withhold or withdraw blood transfusions or blood therapy from minors, particularly in life-threatening situations; parents who have prevented children under their care from receiving blood therapy in life-threatening situations may face prosecution. Courts have ordered transfusions for some children, often the very young; in other cases they have respected the declared choice of an under-age minor who is able to defend his or her own beliefs to the court in a manner that reflects a mature understanding and without undue influence from the parents.

According to Journal of Church and State in a recent peer-reviewed article, Jehovah's Witnesses are allowed to accept whole blood provided it is in the form of blood fractions.^[83] Kerry Louderback-Wood, the writer, alleges that to label the currently acceptable blood fractions as "minute" in relation to whole blood, causes followers to misunderstand the scope and extent of allowed fractions. She also claims Witness publications exaggerate the medical risks of taking blood and the efficacy of non-blood medical therapies in critical situations.^[84]

However, the stand of witnesses in this regard has promoted the use of Bloodless surgery. The last twenty years have witnessed a surge of interest in bloodless surgery, for a variety of reasons. ...

External links

• Reliving Jesus' Last Days on Earth - Jehovah's Witnesses Official Web Site, concerning the Memorial of Christ's Death
• The Last Days of Jesus' Human Life - Jehovah's Witnesses Official Web Site, concerning the Memorial of Christ's death

References