Dr. Benjamin Rush, painted by Charles Willson Peale, c. 1818

Dr. Benjamin Rush (December 24, 1745 – April 19, 1813) was a Founding Father of the United States. Rush lived in the state of Pennsylvania and was a physician, writer, educator, and humanitarian, as well as the founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Download high resolution version (538x624, 193 KB)Benjamin Rush painted by Charles Wilson Peale, c. ... Download high resolution version (538x624, 193 KB)Benjamin Rush painted by Charles Wilson Peale, c. ... Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827), self-portrait from 1822 Charles Willson Peale (April 15, 1741 – February 22, 1827) was an American painter, soldier and naturalist. ... is the 358th day of the year (359th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events May 11 - War of Austrian Succession: Battle of Fontenoy - At Fontenoy, French forces defeat an Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian army including the Black Watch June 4 – Frederick the Great destroys Austrian army at Hohenfriedberg August 19 - Beginning of the 45 Jacobite Rising at Glenfinnan September 12 - Francis I is elected... is the 109th day of the year (110th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1813 (MDCCCXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Founding Fathers are persons instrumental not only in the establishment (founding) of a political institution, but also in the origination of the idea of the institution. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  US Government Portal      A U.S. state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of... Capital Harrisburg Largest city Philadelphia Largest metro area Delaware Valley Area  Ranked 33rd  - Total 46,055 sq mi (119,283 km²)  - Width 280 miles (455 km)  - Length 160 miles (255 km)  - % water 2. ... For other uses, see Doctor. ... A writer is anyone who creates a written work, although the word more usually designates those who write creatively or professionally, or those who have written in many different forms. ... There are a number of meanings for humanitarianism: humanitarianism, humanism, the doctrine that peoples duty is to promote human welfare. ... A mermaid sits atop Dickinson Colleges Old West. ... Coordinates: , Country State County Cumberland Founded 1751 Government  - Mayor Kirk R. Wilson Area  - Borough  5. ...

Rush was also a signer of the Declaration of Independence and attended the Continental Congress. Later in life, he became a professor of medical theory and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania. Despite having a wide influence on the development of American government, he is not as widely known as many of his American contemporaries. Rush was also an early opponent of slavery and capital punishment. The United States Declaration of Independence was an act of the Second Continental Congress, adopted on July 4, 1776, which declared that the Thirteen Colonies in North America were Free and Independent States and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to... The Continental Congress was the first national government of the United States. ... The meaning of the word professor (Latin: [1]) varies. ... This article is about the private Ivy League university in Philadelphia. ... This article describes the government of the United States. ... Slave redirects here. ... Capital punishment, or the death penalty, is the execution of a convicted criminal by the state as punishment for crimes known as capital crimes or capital offences. ...

Despite his great contributions to early American society, Rush is today most famous as the man who, in 1812, helped reconcile two of the largest minds of the early Republic: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. Thomas Jefferson (13 April 1743 N.S.–4 July 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–09), the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of Republicanism in the United States. ... For other persons named John Adams, see John Adams (disambiguation). ...

Life

The birthplace of Benjamin Rush, photographed in 1959.

Rush was born in the Township of Byberry in Philadelphia County, which was about 14 miles from the center of Philadelphia. The township was incorporated into Philadelphia in 1854, and now remains one of its neighborhoods. His father died when he was six, and Rush spent most of his early life with his maternal uncle, the Reverend Samuel Finley. He attended Finley's academy at Nottingham which would later become West Nottingham Academy. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 581 pixelsFull resolution (5000 × 3629 pixels, file size: 9. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 581 pixelsFull resolution (5000 × 3629 pixels, file size: 9. ... Map of Philadelphia County prior to the Act of Consolidation. ... Philadelphia County is a county located in the U.S. State of Pennsylvania. ... Nickname: City of Brotherly Love, Philly, the Quaker City Motto: Philadelphia maneto (Let brotherly love continue) Location in Pennsylvania Coordinates: Country United States State Pennsylvania County Philadelphia Founded October 27, 1682 Incorporated October 25, 1701 Mayor John F. Street (D) Area    - City 369. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Rev. ... Founded 1744 by the preacher Samuel Finley, West Nottingham Academy is the oldest boarding school in America. ...

He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and then obtained a medical degree at the University of Edinburgh. While in Europe practicing medicine, he learned French, Italian, and Spanish. Returning to the Colonies in 1769, Rush opened a medical practice in Philadelphia and became Professor of Chemistry at the College of Philadelphia. Princeton University is a private coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ... The University of Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: ), founded in 1582,[4] is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... In 1775, the British claimed authority over the red and pink areas on this map and Spain ruled the orange. ...

It has been alleged that, prior to his marriage to Julia Stockton, Dr. Rush had been engaged in 1774 to a Miss Sarah Eve, daughter of gunpowder manufacturer and pro-British Loyalist, Oswell Eve Sr., but she died while under the care of Dr. Redman, through the consultation of Dr. Rush, two weeks before the wedding was to take place on Christmas.^[1]

On July 25, 1781 Dr. Rush and his wife, Julia, bought a plantation in Oxford Township, Pennsylvania; this was their summer residence until it was sold on December 31, 1792.^[2] Facts about the summer residency were long under dispute until the recent discovery of an advertisement confirming the Summer Home ownership and residency.^[3] is the 206th day of the year (207th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Map of Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania highlighting Lower Oxford Township prior to the Act of Consolidation, 1854 Oxford Township, also know as Dublin Township is a defunct township that was located in Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania. ... is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

“...the Improvements consist of a large stone Mansion House, Kitchen, &c. suitable for a large family, formerly the summer residence of the late Dr. Rush: a stone Spring House, a Pump of excellent water, a frame Barn and Stable, a good Garden, two Orchards of prime fruit; also, a tenant’s House, with Garden and Orchard, &c. There are on the farm an Excellent Building and Whet Stone Quarry, both Of which may be worked to great profit, known by the name of Harper’s Quarry. This farm is plentifully supplied with water from a number springs, and from Frankford Creek, which forms a part of the boundary line...” Frankford Creek is a minor tributary of the Delaware River. ...

One advertisement appeared in several newspapers, proving the Oxford Township Plantation, which served as Dr. Rush's cottage farm and summer residence:

"Philadelphia, March 22, 1786.

By virtue of a Writ of venditioni exponas to me directed, will be exposed to Public Sale by Vendue, at the premises on SATURDAY the 1st day of April next, at two o'clock in the afternoon, a certain Plantation, Tract or Piece of Land, situate, lying, and being in the township of Oxford in the county of Philadelphia, containing about 189 acres, (5 acres thereof meadows and 30 woodland) within 6 miles of the city of Philadelphia and from the village of Frankfort, being on the road which leads from Frankfort to the old York road, and bounded by lands of Dr. Rush, Dr. Redman, Captain Eves, Frankfort Creek, &c. On said plantation is a large two-story stone house, with four rooms on a floor, a stone kitchen, stone milk house, frame barn, orchard, and a good whetstone quarry, &c. Taken in execution, and sold as the property of Daniel Havartde Travah, by JOSEPH COWPERTHWAIT, sheriff"^[4] There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ...

The proximity of the Rush summer residence may tie into the studies he had done on the Harrowgate Mineral Springs located about a half mile away.

He published the first American textbook on Chemistry, several volumes on medical student education, and wrote influential patriotic essays. He was active in the Sons of Liberty and was elected to attend the provincial conference to send delegates to the Continental Congress. He consulted Thomas Paine on the writing of the profoundly influential pro-independence pamphlet, Common Sense. He was appointed to represent Pennsylvania and signed the Declaration of Independence. For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... The Sons of Liberty as depicted in British press The Sons of Liberty was a secret organization of American Patriots which originated in the Thirteen Colonies before the American Revolution. ... The Continental Congress was the first national government of the United States. ... For other persons of the same name, see Thomas Paine (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Common sense (disambiguation). ...

In 1777 he became surgeon-general of the middle department of the Continental Army. Conflicts with the Army Medical service, specifically with Dr. William Shippen, Jr., led to Rush's resignation. Dr. William Shippen, Jr. ...

As General George Washington suffered a series of defeats in the war, Rush campaigned for his removal, as part of the Conway Cabal, losing his trust and ending Rush's war activities. Rush later regretted his actions against Washington. In a letter to John Adams in 1812, Rush wrote, "He [Washington] was the highly favored instrument whose patriotism and name contributed greatly to the establishment of the independence of the United States." George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799)[1] led Americas Continental Army to victory over Britain in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and in 1789 was elected the first President of the United States of America. ... The Conway Cabal refers to a conspiracy in late 1777 and 1778 designed to remove George Washington as commander of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. ...

In 1783 he was appointed to the staff of Pennsylvania Hospital, of which he remained a member until his death. The Pennsylvania Hospital by William Strickland (1755) Pennsylvania Hospital is the first hospital in the United States. ...

He was elected to the Pennsylvania convention which adopted the Federal constitution and was appointed treasurer of the U.S. Mint, serving from 1797-1813.

The inscription on the rotunda of the Jefferson Memorial, "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." was taken from a letter to Dr. Benjamin Rush, September 23, 1800.

He became Professor of medical theory and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania in 1791, though the quality of his medicine was quite primitive even for the time: he advocated bleeding (for almost any illness) long after its practice had declined. He became a social activist, an abolitionist, and was the most well-known physician in America at the time of his death. He was also founder of the private liberal arts college Dickinson College, in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. This article is about the private Ivy League university in Philadelphia. ... A mermaid sits atop Dickinson Colleges Old West. ... Coordinates: , Country State County Cumberland Founded 1751 Government  - Mayor Kirk R. Wilson Area  - Borough  5. ...

Rush was also a founding member of the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons (known today as the Philadelphia Prison Society), which had great influence in the construction of Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia.

Constitutional ideas

Rush believed that Americans should enshrine the right to medical freedom in their Constitution, much as the right to freedom of religion is expressly guaranteed in that document.

Rush is reported to have argued that "Unless we put Medical Freedom into the Constitution, the time will come when medicine will organize into an undercover dictatorship . . . to restrict the art of healing to one class of men, and deny equal privilege to others, will be to constitute the Bastille of Medical Science. All such laws are un-American and despotic and have no place in a Republic ... The Constitution of this Republic should make special privilege for Medical Freedom as well as Religious Freedom." Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      A dictatorship is an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by a dictator. ... This article is about the building. ...

Also he urged Thomas Paine to write a book that strongly pushed revolution and suggested its title, "Common Sense" ^{[citation needed]}. For other persons of the same name, see Thomas Paine (disambiguation). ...

Corps of discovery

In 1803, Thomas Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis to Philadelphia to prepare for the Lewis and Clark Expedition under the tutelage of Rush, who taught Lewis about frontier illnesses and the performance of bloodletting. Rush provided the corps with a medical kit that included: Thomas Jefferson (13 April 1743 N.S.–4 July 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–09), the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of Republicanism in the United States. ... Meriwether Lewis (August 18, 1774 – October 11, 1809) was an American explorer, soldier, and public administrator, best known for his role as the leader of the Corps of Discovery, whose mission was to explore the territory of the Louisiana Purchase. ... For other uses, see Philadelphia (disambiguation) and Philly. ... “Lewis and Clark” redirects here. ... A frontier is a political and geographical term referring to areas near or beyond a boundary, or of a different nature. ... Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health) can be defined as a state of poor health. ... Ancient Greek painting in a vase, showing a physician (iatros) bleeding a patient. ...

• Turkish opium for nervousness
• emetics to induce vomiting
• medicinal wine
• fifty dozen of Dr. Rush's Bilious Pills, laxatives containing more than 50% mercury, which the corps called "thunderclappers". Their meat-rich diet and lack of clean water during the expedition gave the men cause to use them frequently. Though their efficacy is questionable, their high mercury content provided an excellent tracer by which archaeologists have been able to track the corps' actual route to the Pacific.

This article is about the drug. ... Vomiting (or emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of ones stomach through the mouth. ... Vomiting (or emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of ones stomach through the mouth. ... For the chemical substances known as medicines, see medication. ... For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation). ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight 200. ... Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ...

Africans in America

As a prominent Presbyterian doctor and professor of chemistry in Philadelphia, Benjamin Rush provided a bold and respected voice against slave trade that could not be ignored. The highlight of his involvement to abolish slavery could be the pamphlet he wrote that appeared in Philadelphia, Boston, and New York in 1773 entitled "An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, upon Slave-Keeping." In this first of his many attacks on the social evils of his day, he not only attacks the slave trade, but the entire institution of slavery. In 1787 Rush became an ardent abolitionist after having a dream in which the ghost of Benezet, who had died in 1784, came walking down the beach to meet a group of Africans who had been relating stories about the horrors of slavery to Rush. He awoke from the dream determined to fill the gap left by Benezet's death. Though still a slaveowner himself, in 1788 he also promised freedom to his slave, William Grubber. He co-founded, served as secretary, and later president (1803-13) of America's first abolitionist society named the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. Anything less than freedom for all men, black and white, would, he knew, give the lie to the republican idealism of '76. Influenced by this resolve, In 1766 when Rush set out for his studies in Edinburgh, was outraged by the sight of 100 slave ships in Liverpool harbor. In his efforts to aid Philadelphia's black community, Rush was heavily involved in promoting the African Church. He also recruited Richard Allen, Absalom Jones, and other blacks to help him attend the sick during the yellow fever epidemic of 1793.^{[citation needed]}

Dr. Rush argued scientifically that Negroes were not by nature intellectually or morally inferior. Any apparent evidence to the contrary was only the perverted expression of slavery, which "is so foreign to the human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it."^{[citation needed]}

Rush died in 1813, just as his former pupil, Charles Caldwell, was gaining national recognition for his theories on innate racial differences and the inferiority of Africans and their descendants - a position that Rush had spent much of his life attempting to disprove to a young America, paving the way for the eventual realization for mankind to surrender prejudice to the universal truth that "all men are created equal."^{[citation needed]}

Controversial theories

Rush was an advocate of forced psychiatric treatment. According to psychiatry historian Thomas Szasz, one of Rush's favorite methods of treatment was to tie a patient to a board and spin it rapidly until all the blood went to the head.^[5] He even placed his own son in one of his hospitals for 27 years, until he died. He was also an advocate of bloodletting. Szasz redirects here. ... Ancient Greek painting in a vase, showing a physician (iatros) bleeding a patient. ...

Rush believed that being black was a hereditary illness, which he referred to as "negroidism". In an address to the American Philosophical Society, Rush said that the only evidence of a "cure" occurred when the skin color turned white. Rush drew the conclusion that "Whites should not tyrannize over [blacks], for their disease should entitle them to a double portion of humanity. However, by the same token, whites should not intermarry with them, for this would tend to infect posterity with the 'disorder'... attempts must be made to cure the disease."

Contributions to medicine

Dr. Benjamin Rush painted by Charles Willson Peale, 1783

Rush was far ahead of his time in the treatment of mental illness. In fact, he is considered the "Father of American Psychiatry", publishing the first textbook on the subject in the United States, Medical Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind (1812).^[6] Rush was also an advocate of insane asylums, believing that with proper treatment mental diseases could be cured. An Asylum was even constructed in the area of his birthplace (See Philadelphia State Hospital). The emblem of the American Psychiatric Association bears his portrait. Benjamin Rush was also responsible for the invention of the idea of addiction.^{[citation needed]} Download high resolution version (749x889, 292 KB)Dr. Benjamin Rush painted by Charles Wilson Peale in 1783 The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus... Download high resolution version (749x889, 292 KB)Dr. Benjamin Rush painted by Charles Wilson Peale in 1783 The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus... Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827), self-portrait from 1822 Charles Willson Peale (April 15, 1741 – February 22, 1827) was an American painter, soldier and naturalist. ... A mental illness or mental disorder refers to one of many mental health conditions characterized by distress, impaired cognitive functioning, atypical behavior, emotional dysregulation, and/or maladaptive behavior. ... The Philadelphia State Hospital at Byberry, also known as Byberry Mental Hospital, opened in 1907 in Northeast Philadelphia. ... Due to the epidemic of medical errors, readers are cautioned to be aware that the American Psychiatric Association isnt immune to this. ... Heroin bottle An addiction is a recurring compulsion by an individual to engage in some specific activity, despite harmful consequences to the individuals health, mental state or social life. ...

Prior to his work, drunkenness was viewed as being sinful and a matter of choice. Rush introduced the idea that the alcoholic loses control over himself and identified the properties of alcohol, rather than the alcoholic's choice, as the causal agent. He developed the conception of addiction as a form of medical disease and finally developed the idea that abstinence is the only cure for addiction.^{[citation needed]} Alcoholism is the consumption of, or preoccupation with, alcoholic beverages to the extent that this behavior interferes with the drinkers normal personal, family, social, or work life, and may lead to physical or mental harm. ...

Rush is sometimes considered the father of therapeutic horticulture, particularly as it pertains to the institutionalized. In his book 'Medical Inquiries upon Diseases of the Mind' published in 1812 Rush wrote: Horticulture (Latin: hortus (garden plant) + cultura (culture)) are classically defined as the culture or growing of garden plants. ...

"It has been remarked, that the maniacs of the male sex in all hospitals, who assist in cutting wood, making fires, and digging in a garden, and the females who are employed in washing, ironing, and scrubbing floors, often recover, while persons, whose rank exempts them from performing such services, languish away their lives within the walls of the hospital".^{[citation needed]}

Besides his contributions to psychiatry, Benjamin Rush wrote a descriptive account of the yellow fever epidemic that struck Philadelphia in 1793 (during which he treated up to 120 patients per day), and what is considered to be the first case report on dengue fever (published in 1789 on a case from 1780).^{[citation needed]} Psychiatry is a branch of medicine dealing with the prevention, assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of the mind and mental illness. ... “Dengue Fever” redirects here. ...

Rush lived during the Age of Heroic Medicine (1780-1850), and is considered a strong advocate of “heroic medicine”.^{[citation needed]} Heroic medicine is a term for aggressive medical practices or methods of treatment, and usually refers to those which were later superseded by scientific advances. ...

During his career, he educated over 3000 medical students, and several of these established Rush Medical College (Chicago) in his honor after his death. One of his last apprentices was Samuel A. Cartwright, later a Confederate States of America surgeon charged with improving sanitary conditions in the camps around Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson, Louisiana.^{[citation needed]} Rush Medical College (often referred to simply as Rush) is the medical school of Rush University, a private university in Chicago, Illinois. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Motto Deo Vindice (Latin: Under God, Our Vindicator) Anthem (none official) God Save the South (unofficial) The Bonnie Blue Flag (unofficial) Dixie (unofficial) Capital Montgomery, Alabama (until May 29, 1861) Richmond, Virginia (May 29, 1861–April 2, 1865) Danville, Virginia (from April 3, 1865) Language(s) English (de facto) Religion... Vicksburg is a city in Warren County, Mississippi. ... Port Hudson, is a small town in Louisiana located about 20 mile northeast of Baton Rouge. ...

Rush University Medical Center in Chicago, formerly Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke’s Medical Center, was also named in his honor. Rush Medical College (often referred to simply as Rush) is the medical school of Rush University, a private university in Chicago, Illinois. ...

Religious views and vision

He is generally deemed Presbyterian and was a founder of the Philadelphia Bible Society.^[7] He was an advocate for Christianity in public life and in particular in education. In line with that, he advocated Scriptures as a text­book in the public schools.^[8] Presbyterianism is a tradition shared by a large number of Christian denominations which is most prevalent within the Reformed branch of Protestant Western Christianity. ...

That stated, he may have had Universalist leanings, as the following quote on education seems to imply.^[9] It states, "Such is my veneration for every religion that reveals the attributes of the Deity, or a future state of rewards and punishments, that I had rather see the opinions of Confucius or Mahomed inculcated upon our youth, than see them grow up wholly devoid of a system of religious principles. But the religion I mean to recommend in this place, is that of the New Testament."^[10] This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Confucius (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Kung-fu-tzu), lit. ... Muhammad in a new genre of Islamic calligraphy started in the 17th century by Hafiz Osman. ...

Writings

• Letters of Benjamin Rush, volume 1: 1761-1792 (1951), editor L.H. Butterfield, Princeton University Press
• Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical (1798) Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1989 reprint: Syracuse University Press, ISBN 0-912756-22-5, includes "A Plan of a Peace-Office for the United States"
• The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush: His "Travels Through Life" Together with his Commonplace Book for 1789-1813, 1970 reprint: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-83713037-9
• Medical Inquiries And Observations Upon The Diseases Of The Mind, 2006 reprint: Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-42862669-7
• The Spur of Fame: Dialogues of John Adams and Benjamin Rush, 1805-1813 (2001), Liberty Fund, ISBN 0-86597287-7
• Benjamin Rush, M.D: A Bibliographic Guide (1996), Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-31329823-8
• An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, Upon Slave-keeping. Philadelphia: Printed by J. Dunlap, 1773.

Notes

Duke University is a private coeducational research university located in Durham, North Carolina, USA. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the present-day town of Trinity in 1838, the school moved to Durham in 1892. ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ...

Sources

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

Benjamin Rush

Levine, Harry G. The Discovery of Addiction: Changing Conceptions of Habitual Drunkenness in America. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1978; 15: pp: 493-506. Also available at: http://www.soc.qc.cuny.edu/Staff/levine/doa.htm Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Wikiquote is one of a family of wiki-based projects run by the Wikimedia Foundation, running on MediaWiki software. ...

External links

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• Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
• Appleton's Biography edited by Stanley L. Klos
• Biographical sketch at the University of Pennsylvania

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