Benomyl (also marketed as Benlate) is a fungicide which was introduced in 1968 by Du Pont. It is a systemic benzimidazole fungicide that is selectively toxic to micro-organisms and to invertebrates, especially earthworms. Benomyl binds to microtubules, interfering with cell functions such as meiosis and intracellular transportation. The selective toxicity of benomyl as a fungicide is possibly due to its heightened effect on fungal rather than mammalian microtubules. Fungicides are pesticides for destruction or development prevention of fungi. ... 1968 was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1968 calendar). ... E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (NYSE: DD) was founded in July 1802 as a gun powder mill by Eleuthère Irénée du Pont on Brandywine Creek, near Wilmington, Delaware. ... Benzimidazole is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound. ... For a list of biologically injurious substances, including toxins and other materials, as well as their effects, see poison. ... Invertebrate is a term coined by Chevalier de Lamarck to describe any animal without a backbone or vertebra, like insects, squids and worms. ... Earthworm is the common reference for the larger members of the Oligochaeta (which is either a class or subclass depending on the author) in the phylum Annelida. ... Microtubules are protein structures found within cells. ... Overview of the major events in meiosis Meiosis (a Greek word meaning decrease) is a cellular process that forms the basis for sexual reproduction, together with syngamy. ... Divisions Microsporidia Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Yellow fungus For the fictional character, see Fungus the Bogeyman. ... Orders Subclass Monotremata Monotremata Subclass Marsupialia Didelphimorphia Paucituberculata Microbiotheria Dasyuromorphia Peramelemorphia Notoryctemorphia Diprotodontia Subclass Placentalia Xenarthra Dermoptera Desmostylia Scandentia Primates Rodentia Lagomorpha Insectivora Chiroptera Pholidota Carnivora Perissodactyla Artiodactyla Cetacea Afrosoricida Macroscelidea Tubulidentata Hyracoidea Proboscidea Sirenia The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals primarily characterized by the presence of mammary...

Toxicity

Benomyl is of such a low toxicity to mammals that it has been impossible to administer doses large enough to establish an LD50. It has an arbitrary LD50 that is "greater than 10,000 mg/kg/day for rats". Skin irritation may occur through industrial exposure, and florists, mushroom pickers and floriculturists have reported allergic reactions to benomyl. In toxicology, the LD50 or colloquially semilethal dose of a particular substance is a measure of how much constitutes a lethal dose. ...

In a laboratory study, dogs fed benomyl in their diets for three months developed no major toxic effects but did show evidence of altered liver function at the highest dose (150 mg/kg). With longer exposure, more severe liver damage occurred including cirrhosis. The liver is an organ in vertebrates including humans. ... Cirrhosis is a chronic disease of the liver in which liver tissue is replaced by connective tissue, resulting in the loss of liver function. ...

The US Environmental Protection Agency classified benomyl as a possible carcinogen. Carcinogenic studies have produced conflicting results. A two year experimental mouse study has shown it "probably" causes an increase in liver tumours. The British Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food took the view that this was bought about by the hepatoxic effect of benomyl. The mission of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is to protect human health and to safeguard the natural environment: air, water, and land. ... In pathology, a carcinogen is any substance or agent that promotes cancer. ... The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food was a UK government department, dealing with agriculture, fisheries and food safety. ...

In 1993, the Observer, a UK national newspaper, published a series of articles alleging a possible link between exposure of pregnant mothers to benomyl and their children being born without eyes (anophthalmia) or with related syndromes including reduced eyes and blindness due to severe damage of the optic stem. The newspaper cited a number of suspected clusters in the UK that may have corresponded to areas of benomyl use. Studies have shown that eye defects can occur at relatively high doses. A test in which rats were dosed orally demonstrated evidence of microphthalmia at dose levels of 62.5 mg/kg and above. The Observer is a broadsheet newspaper of the United Kingdom published on Sundays. ... Blindness can be defined physiologically as the condition of lacking sight. ... Blindness can be defined physiologically as the condition of lacking sight. ... The optic nerve is the nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. ...

In 1996 a Miami jury awarded US$4 million to a child whose mother was exposed in pregnancy to Benlate. The child was born without eyes. The mother had been exposed to an unusually high dose of Benlate through her occupation, during pregnancy. An important issue in the case was whether the timing of exposure - during the formation of the optic nerve in the foetus - was critical as well as the magnitude of exposure. A Benlate compensation case involving an English boy from Essex born without eyes is also due to be heard shortly in the US. This article is about the city in Florida. ... This article is about the county of Essex in England. ...

Environmental effects

Benomyl binds strongly to soil and does not dissolve in water to any great extent. It has a half-life in turf of three to six months, and in bare soil, a half-life of six months to one year. In 1991, many US growers blamed Benlate for destroying millions of dollars worth of crops. Growers filed over 1,900 damage claims against Du Pont, mostly involving ornamental crops in Florida. The reason for the crop damage is unclear. The Florida Department of Agriculture suggested Benlate was contaminated with dibutylurea and sulfonylurea herbicides. After several years of legal argument Du Pont paid out about US$750 million in damages and out-of-court settlements. By 1993, a coalition of farm worker and environmental groups came together to form "Benlate Victims Against Du Pont", a group which called for a nation-wide boycott of Du Pont products. After carrying out tests, Du Pont denied that Benlate was contaminated with dibutylurea and sulfonylureas and stopped compensation pay-outs. In 1995, a Florida judge rejected a complaint from the Florida Department of Agriculture that had alleged such a link. Half-Life For a quantity subject to exponential decay, the half-life is the time required for the quantity to fall to half of its initial value. ... Turf may refer to Sod, the surface layer of ground consisting of a matt of grass and grass roots, sometimes used as a construction material AstroTurf, or any variety of artificial turf made to resemble grass A colloquialism for the world of horse-racing Slang for territory claimed by a... For the heavy metal band see Soil (band) Soil is the layer of minerals and organic matter, in thickness from centimetres to a metre or more, on the land surface. ... Sulfonylurea derivatives are a class of antidiabetic drugs that are used in the management of diabetes mellitus type 2 (adult-onset). They act by increasing insulin release from the beta cells in the pancreas. ...