Western Philosophy 20th-century philosophy
Sir Bernard Williams
Name:	Bernard Williams
Birth:	September 21, 1929
Death:	June 10, 2003
School/tradition:	Analytic philosophy
Main interests:	Ethics
Influences:	Friedrich Nietzsche, R.M. Hare
Influenced:	Jennifer Hornsby, Martha Nussbaum

Bernard Arthur Owen Williams (September 21, 1929 – June 10, 2003) was a British philosopher, widely cited as the most important British moral philosopher of his time.^[1] It has been suggested that Contemporary philosophy be merged into this article or section. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... June 10 is the 161st day of the year (162nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Analytic philosophy is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to prominence during the 20th Century. ... Ethics (via Latin from the Ancient Greek moral philosophy, from the adjective of Ä“thos custom, habit), a major branch of philosophy, is the study of values and customs of a person or group. ... Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) (IPA: ) was a 19th-century German philosopher. ... R.M. Hare Richard Mervyn Hare (March 21, 1919 – January 29, 2002) was an English moral philosopher, who held the post of Whites Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Oxford from 1966 until 1983. ... Jennifer Hornsby (1951 - ) is a British philosopher of mind, action and language. ... Martha Nussbaum Martha Nussbaum (born Martha Craven on May 6, 1947) is an American philosopher, with a particular interest in ancient philosophy, political philosophy and ethics. ... is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... June 10 is the 161st day of the year (162nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

He was Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge for over a decade, and Provost of King's College, Cambridge for almost as long, before becoming Deutsch Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. He then held the White's Chair in Moral Philosophy at Oxford University.^[2] Williams became known internationally for his attempt to return the study of moral philosophy to its foundations: to history and culture, politics and psychology, and, in particular, to the Greeks. Described as an "analytic philosopher with the soul of a humanist,"^[3] he saw himself as a synthesist, drawing together ideas from fields that seemed increasingly unable to communicate with one another. He rejected scientific and evolutionary reductionism, once calling reductionists "the ones I really do dislike" because they are morally unimaginative, he said.^[4] For Williams, complexity was beautiful, meaningful, and irreducible. The Knightbridge Professorship of Philosophy is the senior professorship in philosophy at the University of Cambridge. ... The University of Cambridge was the birthplace of the analytical school of philosophy in the early 20th century. ... Full name The King’s College of Our Lady and St Nicholas in Cambridge Motto Veritas et Utilitas Truth and usefulness Named after Henry VI Previous names - Established 1441 Sister College(s) New College, Oxford Provost Prof. ... Analytic philosophy is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to prominence during the 20th Century. ... Humanism[1] is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities—particularly rationality. ... Synthesis (from the ancient Greek σύν (with) and θεσις (placing), is commonly understood to be an integration of two or more pre-existing elements which results in a new creation. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... Descartes held that non-human animals could be reductively explained as automata — De homines 1622. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

He became known as a great supporter of women in academia,^[5] seeing in women the possibility of that synthesis of reason and emotion that he felt eluded analytic philosophy. The American philosopher Martha Nussbaum said Williams was "as close to being a feminist as a powerful man of his generation could be."^[5] Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. ... For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation). ... Emotional redirects here. ... Martha Nussbaum Martha Nussbaum (born Martha Craven on May 6, 1947) is an American philosopher, with a particular interest in ancient philosophy, political philosophy and ethics. ... Feminists redirects here. ...

His life

Williams was born in Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex, the only son of a civil servant. He was educated at Chigwell School and read Greats (Classics) at Balliol College, Oxford. Despite allegedly turning up 30 minutes late for his finals in order to spend that time learning all the material he needed for his exams, he still graduated, in 1951, with the rare distinction of a congratulatory first-class honours degree, the highest award at this level in the British university system. He then spent his year-long national service in the Royal Air Force (RAF), flying Spitfires in Canada. Westcliff-on-Sea is a town in southeast Essex, England, within the administrative boundaries of the Borough of Southend-on-Sea. ... Essex is a county in the East of England. ... Chigwell School is an English co-educational public school in Chigwell, in the Epping Forest district of Essex. ... and of the Balliol College College name Balliol College Named after John de Balliol Established 1263 Sister college St Johns College, Cambridge Master Andrew Graham JCR President Helen Lochead Undergraduates 403 MCR President Chelsea Payne Graduates 228 Location of Balliol College within central Oxford , Homepage Boatclub Balliol College (pronounced... The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the air force branch of the British Armed Forces. ... The Supermarine Spitfire was an iconic British single-seat fighter used primarily by the RAF and many Allied countries through the Second World War and into the 1950s. ...

He met his future wife, Shirley Brittain-Catlin, the daughter of political scientist and philosopher George Catlin and novelist Vera Brittain, while he was on leave in New York, where she was studying at Columbia University. At the age of 22, after winning a Prize Fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford, Williams returned to England with Shirley to take up the post — though not before she'd had an affair with four-minute-miler Roger Bannister^[6] — and they were married in 1955. Shirley Williams, as she became known, was elected as a Labour Member of Parliament, then crossed the floor as one of the "Gang of Four" to become a founding member of the SDP, a centrist breakaway party. She was later ennobled, becoming Baroness Williams of Crosby, and remains a prominent member of the Liberal Democrats. The Baroness Williams of Crosby Shirley Williams, Baroness Williams of Crosby, PC (born July 27, 1930), is a British politician. ... George Edward Gordon Catlin (1896-1979) was an English political scientist and philosopher. ... Vera Mary Brittain, Lady Catlin (1893 – March 29, 1970) was an English writer, feminist and pacifist, best remembered as the author of the best-selling memoir Testament of Youth, recounting her experiences during the First World War and the growth of her ideology of specifically Anglican Christian pacifism. ... NY redirects here. ... Columbia University is a private research university in the United States and a member of the prestigious Ivy League. ... College name All Souls College Collegium Omnium Animarum Named after Feast of All Souls Established 1438 Sister College Trinity Hall, Cambridge Warden Dr. John Davis JCR President None Undergraduates None MCR President None Graduates 8 (approx. ... Bannister was chosen as the first Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year for his accomplishments in 1954. ... The Baroness Williams of Crosby Shirley Williams, Baroness Williams of Crosby, PC (born July 27, 1930), is a British politician. ... The Labour Party is a political party in the United Kingdom. ... A Member of Parliament, or MP, is a representative elected by the voters to a parliament. ... In Chinese history, the Gang of Four was a group of Communist politicians based in Shanghai. ... The Social Democratic Party (SDP) was a political party of the United Kingdom that existed nationwide between 1981 and 1988. ... The Liberal Democrats, often shortened to Lib Dems, are a liberal political party based in the United Kingdom. ...

Williams left Oxford to accommodate his wife's rising political ambitions, finding a post first at University College London and then at Bedford College, while his wife worked as a journalist for the Financial Times. For 17 years, the couple lived in a large house in Kensington with the literary agent Hilary Rubinstein and his wife. During this time, described by Williams as one of the happiest of his life,^[6] the marriage produced a daughter, Rebecca, but the development of his wife's political career kept the couple apart, and the marked difference in their personal values — Williams was a confirmed atheist, his wife a devout Catholic — placed a strain on their relationship, which reached breaking point when Williams had an affair with Patricia Law Skinner, then wife of the historian Quentin Skinner. The Williams' marriage was dissolved in 1974, and Williams and Skinner were able to wed, a marriage that produced two sons. Affiliations University of London Russell Group LERU EUA ACU Golden Triangle G5 Website http://www. ... The University of London is a university based primarily in London. ... The Financial Times (FT) is an international business newspaper printed on distinctive salmon pink broadsheet paper. ... , A wealthy area in Kensington, that is just south of Kensington High Street. ... “Atheist” redirects here. ... // Quentin Robert Duthie Skinner (born 26 November 1940) is Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University. ...

Williams spent nearly 20 years at Cambridge, eight of them as Provost of King's College.

Williams became Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy at Cambridge in 1967, then vacated the chair to serve as Provost of King's College, Cambridge from 1979 until 1987, when he moved to the University of California, Berkeley to take up the post of Deutsch Professor of Philosophy from 1987 to 2000. He told a British newspaper, he could barely afford to buy a house in central London on his salary as an academic. His public outburst at the low salaries in British universities made his departure appear part of the brain drain, as the British media called it, which was his intention. He told The Guardian in November 2002 that he regretted his departure became so public: "I was persuaded that there was a real problem about academic conditions and that if my departure was publicised this would bring these matters to public attention. It did a bit, but it made me seem narky, and when I came back again in three years it looked rather absurd. I came back for personal reasons — it's harder to live out there with a family than I supposed."^[6] Download high resolution version (1016x719, 188 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1016x719, 188 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Full name The King’s College of Our Lady and St Nicholas in Cambridge Motto Veritas et Utilitas Truth and usefulness Named after Henry VI Previous names - Established 1441 Sister College(s) New College, Oxford Provost Prof. ... The Knightbridge Professorship of Philosophy is the senior professorship in philosophy at the University of Cambridge. ... Provost is the title of a senior academic administrator at many institutions of higher education in the United States and Canada, the equivalent of Vice-Chancellor at certain UK universites such as UCL, and the head of certain Oxbridge colleges (e. ... Full name The King’s College of Our Lady and St Nicholas in Cambridge Motto Veritas et Utilitas Truth and usefulness Named after Henry VI Previous names - Established 1441 Sister College(s) New College, Oxford Provost Prof. ... Sather tower (the Campanile) looking out over the San Francisco Bay and Mount Tamalpais. ... Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. ... A brain drain or human capital flight is an emigration of trained and talented individuals (human capital) to other nations or jurisdictions, due to conflicts, lack of opportunity, health hazards where they are living, discrimination or other reasons. ...

Having taught at Berkeley since 1987, in 1990 he began working simultaneously at Berkeley and again at Oxford where he held White's Professor of Moral Philosophy He returned to Oxford to live in retirement in 2000 until his death in Rome while on holiday in 2003. Endowed in 1621 by Thomas White (c. ...

In addition to academic life, Williams chaired and served on a number of Royal Commissions and government committees. In the 1970s, he chaired the Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship, which reported in 1979 that: "Given the amount of explicit sexual material in circulation and the allegations often made about its effects, it is striking that one can find case after case of sex crimes and murder without any hint at all that pornography was present in the background." The Committee's report was influenced by the liberal thinking of John Stuart Mill, a philosopher greatly admired by Williams, who used Mill's principle of liberty to develop what Williams called the "harm condition," whereby "no conduct should be suppressed by law unless it can be shown to harm someone."^[6] Williams concluded that pornography could not be shown to be harmful and that "the role of pornography in influencing society is not very important ... to think anything else is to get the problem of pornography out of proportion with the many other problems that face our society today". The committee reported that, so long as children were protected from seeing it, adults should be free to read and watch pornography as they saw fit. Margaret Thatcher's first administration put an end to the liberal agenda on sex, and nearly put an end to Williams' political career too; he was not asked to chair another public committee for almost 15 years. Obscenity in Latin obscenus, meaning foul, repulsive, detestable, (possibly derived from ob caenum, literally from filth). The term is most often used in a legal context to describe expressions (words, images, actions) that offend the prevalent sexual morality of the time. ... Censorship is defined as the removal and/or withholding of information from the public by a controlling group or body. ... Porn redirects here. ... John Stuart Mill, (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) British philosopher, political economist and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. ... Liberty is generally considered a concept of political philosophy and identifies the condition in which an individual has immunity from the arbitrary exercise of authority. ... Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC (born October 13, 1925), former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, in office from 1979 to 1990. ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ...

Apart from pornography, he also sat on commissions examining drug abuse in 1971; gambling in 1976–78; the role of British private schools in 1965–70; and social justice in 1993–94. "I did all the major vices," he said.^[7] This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Caravaggio, The Cardsharps, c. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Williams was famously sharp in discussion. Oxford philosopher Gilbert Ryle once said of him that "[h]e understands what you're going to say better than you understand it yourself, and sees all the possible objections to it, all the possible answers to all the possible objections, before you've got to the end of your sentence."^[6] Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976), was a philosopher, and a representative of the generation of British ordinary language philosophers influenced by Wittgensteins insights into language, and is principally known for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for which he coined the phrase the ghost in the machine. He referred to some...

He was knighted in 1999 and became a fellow of the British Academy and an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He sat on the board of the English National Opera and wrote the entry for "opera" in the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. A collection of Williams' writings on opera was published in 2006. A statue of an armoured knight of the Middle Ages For the chess piece, see knight (chess). ... The British Academy is the United Kingdoms national academy for the humanities and the social sciences. ... The House of the Academy, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ... The London Coliseum, home of the English National Opera English National Opera (ENO), located at the Coliseum Theatre on St. ... The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2001 The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians is an encyclopedic dictionary of music and musicians, considered by most scholars to be the best general reference source on the subject in the English language. ...

Williams died on June 10, 2003, while on holiday in Rome. He had been suffering from multiple myeloma, a form of cancer. He is survived by his wife, Patricia, their two sons, Jacob and Jonathan, and Rebecca, his daughter from his first marriage. June 10 is the 161st day of the year (162nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5... Multiple myeloma (also known as MM, myeloma, plasma cell myeloma, or as Kahlers disease after Otto Kahler) is a type of cancer of plasma cells which are immune system cells in bone marrow that produce antibodies. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ...

His work

Williams' books and papers include studies of René Descartes and Ancient Greek philosophy, as well as more detailed attacks on utilitarianism and Kantianism. René Descartes (French IPA: ) (March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Renatus Cartesius (latinized form), was a highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. ... The Temple of Athena, the Parthenon Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around nine hundred years. ... Utilitarianism (1861), see Utilitarianism (book). ... Kantianism is the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. ...

Williams was a systems destroyer, attacking all "isms" with equal vigour. He turned his back on the meta-ethics studied by most moral philosophers trained in the Western analytic tradition — "What is the Good?" and "What does the word 'ought' mean?" — and concentrated instead on practical ethics. Williams tried to address the question of how to live a good life, focusing on the complexity, the "moral luck," as he called it, of everyday life. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... In philosophy, meta-ethics or analytic ethics [1] is the branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, and ethical statements, attitudes, and judgments. ... Normative ethics is the branch of the philosophical study of ethics concerned with classifying actions as right and wrong, as opposed to descriptive ethics. ... Moral luck is the phenomenon whereby a moral agent is assigned moral blame or moral praise for an action or its consequences even when it is clear that the agent in question did not have full control over either the action or its consequences. ...

In Morality: An Introduction to Ethics (1972), he wrote that "whereas most moral philosophy at most times has been empty and boring . . . contemporary moral philosophy has found an original way of being boring, which is by not discussing issues at all". The study of morality, he argued, should be vital and compelling. He wanted to find a moral philosophy that was accountable to psychology, history, politics, and culture. In his rejection of morality as what he called "a peculiar institution", by which he meant a discrete and separable domain of human thought, Williams resembled the 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. After beginning by thinking of him as a crude reductionist, in his later career, Williams came to greatly admire Nietzsche — he once even remarked that he wished he could quote Nietzsche on every page he wrote.-1... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) (IPA: ) was a 19th-century German philosopher. ...

Although Williams' disdain for reductionism sometimes made him appear a moral relativist, he believed, like the Ancient Greeks, that the so-called "thick" moral concepts, like courage and cruelty, were real and universal. In philosophy, moral relativism is the position that moral or ethical propositions do not reflect objective and/or universal moral truths, but instead make claims relative to social, cultural, historical or personal circumstances. ... The Temple of Athena, the Parthenon Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around nine hundred years. ...

Williams' last finished book, Truth And Truthfulness: An Essay In Genealogy (2002), attempts to defend a non-foundationalist attachment to the values of truth, which Williams identifies as accuracy and sincerity, by giving a vindicatory naturalistic genealogy of them. The debt to Nietzsche is again clear, most obviously in the adoption of a genealogical method as a tool of explanation and critique. Although, as The Guardian noted in its obituary of Williams, describing the book as an examination of those who "sneer at any purported truth as ludicrously naive because it is, inevitably, distorted by power, class bias and ideology,"^[8] part of Williams' intention was to attack those who he felt denied the value of truth, the book's blurb cautions that to understand it simply in that sense would be to miss part of its purpose: it "presents a... challenge" to both "the fashionable belief that truth has no value" and "the traditional faith that [truth's] value guarantees itself".^[9]

Critique of utilitarianism

Williams was particularly critical of utilitarianism, a consequentialist theory, the simplest version of which argues that moral acts are good only insofar as they promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Utilitarianism (1861), see Utilitarianism (book). ... Consequentialism refers to those moral theories that hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action. ...

One of Williams' famous arguments against utilitarianism centres on Jim, a scientist doing research in a South American country led by a brutal dictator. Jim finds himself in the central square of a small town facing 20 rebels, who are captured and tied up. The captain who has defeated them says that, if Jim will kill one of the rebels, the others will be released in honour of Jim's status as a guest. But if he does not, they will all be killed.^[10] Simple act utilitarianism says that Jim should kill one of the captives in order to save the others, and indeed, for most consequentialist theories, there is no moral dilemma in a case like this: All that matters is the outcome. South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ...

Against this, Williams argued that there is a crucial moral distinction between a person being killed by me, and being killed by someone else because of what I do. The utilitarian loses that vital distinction, he argued, thereby stripping us of our agency and so our humanity, turning us into empty vessels by means of which consequences occur, rather than preserving our status as moral actors and decision-makers with integrity. Moral decisions must preserve our integrity and our psychological identity, he argued. Look up integrity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Identity in psychological terms relates to self-image, self-esteem and individuation. ...

An advocate of utilitarianism would reply that the theory cannot be dismissed as easily as that. The Nobel philosopher of economics Amartya Sen, for example, argued that moral agency, issues of integrity, and personal points of view can be worked into a consequentialist account; that is, they can be counted as consequences too.^[11] For example, to solve parking problems in London, Williams wrote, a utilitarian would have to favour threatening to shoot anyone who parked in a prohibited space. If only a few people were shot for this, illegal parking would soon stop; the shootings would be justified, according to simple act utilitarianism, because of the happiness the absence of parking problems would bring to millions of Londoners. Any theory that has this as a consequence, Williams argued, should be rejected out of hand, no matter how intuitively plausible it feels to agree that we do judge actions solely in terms of their consequences. We do not, argued Williams, and we must not. Nobel Prize medal. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article needs cleanup. ...

However Sen and others have argued rule utilitarianism would ask what rule could be extrapolated from the parking example. The rule 'shoot those who commit parking violations' is unlikely to, in the long run and considering all its consequences, maximise good outcomes. For Williams, however, this type of argument simply proved his point. We do not, as a matter of fact, need to calculate whether threatening to shoot people over parking offences would maximise good outcomes. We already know that threatening to shoot people over parking offences is wrong, and any system that requires us to make that calculation is a system we should reject because by forgetting we know that, it misunderstands and misrepresents moral reasoning.

Critique of Kantianism

Immanuel Kant, 1724–1804. Williams rejected Kant's moral philosophy, arguing that moral principles should not require me to act as though I am someone else.

One of the main rivals of utilitarianism is the moral philosophy of the 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Williams' work throughout the 1970s and 1980s^[12] outlined the basis of his attacks on the twin pillars of utilitarianism and Kantianism. Martha Nussbaum wrote that his work "denounced the trivial and evasive way in which moral philosophy was being practised in England under the aegis of those two dominant theories."^[5] This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... “Kant” redirects here. ... “Kant” redirects here. ... Martha Nussbaum Martha Nussbaum (born Martha Craven on May 6, 1947) is an American philosopher, with a particular interest in ancient philosophy, political philosophy and ethics. ...

Kant's Critique of Practical Reason and Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals expounded a moral system based on what he called the Categorical Imperative, the best known version of which is: "Act as if the maxim of your action were to become, by an act of will, a universal law of nature". cover of 1898 English edition of the Critique of Practical Reason The Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft) is the second of Immanuel Kants three critiques, first published in 1788. ... The Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, 1785) is a work by Immanuel Kant meant to establish the fundamental rational and a priori basis for morality. ... The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept of the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and of modern deontological ethics. ... // For the racing driver, see Will Power. ...

This is a binding law, Kant argued, on any rational being with free will. You must imagine, when you act, that the rule underpinning your action will apply to everyone in similar circumstances, including yourself in future. If you cannot accept the consequences of this thought experiment, or if it leads to a contradiction, you must not carry out the act. For example, if you want to kill your wife's lover, you must imagine a law that says all wronged husbands have the right to kill their wives' lovers; and that will include you, should you become the lover of someone else's wife. In other words, you must universalize your experience. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Free-Will is a Japanese independent record label founded in 1986. ... In philosophy, physics, and other fields, a thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is an attempt to solve a problem using the power of human imagination. ... The concept of universalizability is one which was set out by the 19th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant as part of his work, the Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals. ...

Williams argued against the Categorical Imperative in his paper "Persons, character and morality."^[13] Morality should not require us to act selflessly, as though we are not who we are, as though we are not in the circumstances we presently find ourselves. We should not have to take an impartial view, or a Christian view, of the world, he argued. Our values, commitments, and desires do make a difference to how we see the world and how we act; and so they should, he said, otherwise we lose our individuality, and thereby our humanity. Christianity percentage by country, purple is highest, orange is lowest Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe Tyndale · Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch...

Reasons for action

Williams' insistence that morality is about people and their real lives, and that acting out of self-interest and even selfishness are not contrary to moral action, is illustrated in his "internal reasons for action" argument, part of what philosophers call the "internal/external reasons" debate. Self-interest can refer to any of the following concepts: Egoism Selfishness Ethical egoism Psychological egoism Individualism Objectivist ethics Hedonism Epicureanism Enlightened self-interest This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... Selfishness is an noun denoting the precedence given in thought or deed to self interests and self concerns, the act of placing ones own needs or desires above the needs or desires of others. ...

Philosophers have tried to argue that moral agents can have "external reasons" for performing a moral act; that is, they are able to act for reasons external to their inner mental states. Williams argued that this is meaningless. For something to be a "reason to act," it must be magnetic; that is, it must move us to action. How can something entirely external to us — for example, the proposition that X is good — be magnetic? By what process can something external to us move us to act? This article is about the word proposition as it is used in logic, philosophy, and linguistics. ...

Williams argued that it cannot. Cognition is not magnetic. Knowing and feeling are quite separate, and a person must feel before they are moved to act. Reasons for action are always internal, he argued. If I feel moved to do X (for example, to do something good), it is because I want to. I may want to do the right thing for a number of reasons. For example, I may have been brought up to believe that X is good and may wish to act in accordance with my upbringing; or I may want to look good in someone else's eyes; or perhaps I fear the disapproval of my community. The reasons can be complex, but they are always internal and they always boil down to desire. Look up Cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Look up desire in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

With this argument, Williams left moral philosophy with the notion that a person's moral reasons must be rooted in his desires to act morally, desires that might, at any given moment, in any given person, be absent. In a secular humanist tradition, with no appeal to God or any external moral authority, Williams' theory strikes at the foundation of conventional morality; namely, that people sometimes do good even when they don't want to. Secular humanism is a humanist philosophy that upholds reason, ethics, and justice, and specifically rejects the supernatural and the spiritual as warrants of moral reflection and decision-making. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ...

Posthumous works

Since Williams' death, three collections of essays, articles, and transcripts of lectures have been published. In the Beginning Was the Deed: Realism and Moralism in Political Argument (2005), on political philosophy; The Sense of the Past: Essays in the History of Philosophy (2006), a series of essays on the boundaries between philosophy and history; and Philosophy as a Humanistic Discipline (2006), on metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.

Publications

Books

• Morality: An Introduction to Ethics. Cambridge University Press, 1972.
• Problems of the Self. Cambridge University Press, 1973.
• (with J. J. C. Smart) Utilitarianism: For and Against. Cambridge University Press, 1973.
• Descartes: The Project of Pure Inquiry. Harvester Press, 1978.
• Moral Luck. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
• Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. Harvard University Press, 1985.
• Shame and Necessity. University of California Press, 1993.
• Making Sense of Humanity. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
• Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy. Princeton University Press, 2002.
• In the Beginning Was the Deed: Realism and Moralism in Political Argument. Princeton University Press, 2005.
• Philosophy As A Humanistic Discipline. Edited by A. W. Moore, 2006.
• The Sense Of The Past: Essays In The Philosophy Of History, 2006.
• On Opera, Yale University Press, 2006.

Papers and articles

• "Pagan Justice and Christian Love," Apeiron 26.3–4, 1993, pp. 195–207.
• "Cratylus' Theory of Names and Its Refutation," in Language, ed. Stephen Everson, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
• "The Actus Reus of Dr. Caligari," Pennsylvania Law Review 142, May 1994.
• "Descartes and the Historiography of Philosophy," in Reason, Will and Sensation: Studies in Descartes's Metaphysics, ed. John Cottingham, Oxford University Press, 1994.
• "Acting as the Virtuous Person Acts," in Aristotle and Moral Realism, ed. Robert Heinaman, Westview Press, 1995.
• "Ethics," in Philosophy: A Guide Through the Subject, ed. A. C. Grayling, Oxford University Press, 1995.
• "Identity and Identities," in Identity: Essays Based on Herbert Spencer Lectures Given in the University of Oxford, ed. Henry Harris, Oxford University Press, 1995.
• "Truth in Ethics," Ratio 8.3, 1995, pp. 227–42.
• "Contemporary Philosophy: A Second Look," in The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy. N. F. Bunnin (ed.), Blackwell, 1996.
• "History, Morality, and the Test of Reflection," in The Sources of Normativity. Onora O'Neill (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1996.
• "Reasons, Values and the Theory of Persuasion," in Ethics, Rationality and Economic Behavior, ed. Francesco Farina, Frank Hahn and Stafano Vannucci, Oxford University Press, 1996.
• "The Politics of Trust," in The Geography of Identity, ed. Patricia Yeager, University of Michigan Press, 1996.
• "The Women of Trachis: Fictions, Pessimism, Ethics," in The Greeks and Us, R. B. Louden and P. Schollmeier (eds.), Chicago University Press, 1996.
• "Toleration: An Impossible Virtue?" in Toleration: An Exclusive Virtue, ed. David Heyd, Princeton University Press, 1996.
• "Truth, Politics and Self-Deception," Social Research 63.3 (Fall 1996).
• "Moral Responsibility and Political Freedom," Cambridge Law Journal 56, 1997.
• "Stoic Philosophy and the Emotions: Reply to Richard Sorabji," in Aristotle and After, R. Sorabji (ed.), Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 68, 1997.
• "Tolerating the Intolerable," in The Politics of Toleration. ed. Susan Mendus, Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
• "Philosophy As a Humanistic Discipline," Philosophy 75, Oct. 2000, pp. 477–496.
• "Understanding Homer: Literature, History and Ideal Anthropology," in Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transdisciplinary Perspectives. Neil Roughley, ed. de Gruyter, 2000.

Notes

1. ^ Obituary, "Professor Sir Bernard Williams," The Times, June 14, 2003.
2. ^ Obituary, no byline, Professor Sir Bernard Williams The Daily Telegraph, June 14, 2003
3. ^ McGinn, Colin, "Isn't It the Truth?" The New York Review of Books, April 10, 2003.
4. ^ Baker, Kenneth, Bernard Williams: "Carrying the torch for truth", an interview with Bernard Williams, San Francisco Chronicle, September 22, 2002.
5. ^ ^{a b c} Nussbaum, Martha, "Tragedy and Justice", Boston Review, October/November 2003
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Jeffries, Stuart, The Quest for Truth The Guardian, November 30, 2002.
7. ^ Obituary, no byline, Professor Sir Bernard Williams The Times, June 14, 2003.
8. ^ O'Grady, Jane, Professor Sir Bernard Williams The Guardian, June 13, 2003.
9. ^ Princeton University Press, [1]
10. ^ Williams, Bernard. Utilitarianism: For and Against, 1973.
11. ^ Sen, Amartya, and Bernard Williams (eds),Utilitarianism and Beyond. Cambridge University Press, 1982.
12. ^ Morality: An Introduction to Ethics in 1972; Problems of the Self in 1973; Utilitarianism: For and Against with J.J.C. Smart, also in 1973; Moral Luck in 1981; and Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy in 1985
13. ^ Williams, Bernard, Moral Luck. Cambridge University Press, 1981.

References

• Baker, Kenneth, Bernard Williams: Carrying the torch for truth An interview with Bernard Williams, San Francisco Chronicle, September 22, 2002.
• Foot, Philippa, "Reasons for Action and Desires," in Practical Reasoning, ed. Joseph Raz, Oxford University Press, 1978.
• Jeffries, Stuart, The Quest for Truth The Guardian, November 30, 2002.
• McGinn, Colin, Isn't It the Truth? The New York Review of Books, April 10, 2003.
• Nussbaum, Martha, Tragedy and Justice Boston Review, October/November 2003.
• Obituary, no byline, Professor Sir Bernard Williams The Daily Telegraph, June 14, 2003.
• Obituary, no byline, Professor Sir Bernard Williams The Times, June 14, 2003.
• Obituary, no byline, Bernard Williams The Economist, June 26, 2003.
• O'Grady, Jane, Professor Sir Bernard Williams The Guardian, June 13, 2003.
• Pearson, Richard, Philosopher Bernard Williams Dies: Weighed Questions of Moral Identify The Washington Post, June 18, 2003.
• Sen, Amartya, Ethics and Economics (Blackwell, 1989).
• Sen, Amartya and Williams, Bernard (eds),Utilitarianism and Beyond, Cambridge University Press, 1982.
• Williams, Bernard, Moral Luck. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
• Williams, Bernard, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. Harvard University Press, 1985.

Further reading

• A live chat with Bernard Williams, GuardianUnlimited, November 2002.
• Chappell, Timothy, Bernard Williams, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, February 2006.
• McGinn, Colin, Isn't it the truth? New York Review of Books, April 10, 2003. (requires subscription)
• Sides, Carl Brock, Williams on Personal Identity Brock's Philosophy Page, 1997, retrieved December 07, 2004.
• Williams, Bernard, Why Philosophy Needs History London Review of Books, October 17, 2002. (requires subscription)
• Williams, Bernard, Philosophy as a Humanistic Discipline The Royal Institute of Philosophy, undated, retrieved January 20, 2007.
  

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