Wind dispersal of dandelion seeds.

Biological dispersal refers to those processes by which a species maintains or expands the distribution of a population. Dispersal implies movement—movement away from an existing population (population expansion) or away from the parent organisms (population maintenance). In the latter case, dispersal may simply involve replacement of the parent generation by the new generation, with only minor changes in geographic area occupied. In either case, dispersal is important because new life must replace old, and the two generations cannot easily occupy the same physical space during the transition. More significantly, dispersal enables the species population to occupy much of the available habitat, thereby maximizing resources in its favor and providing a hedge against local adverse events. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1024x768, 116 KB) Summary Dandelion seed floaters I, PiccoloNamek, took this photograph. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1024x768, 116 KB) Summary Dandelion seed floaters I, PiccoloNamek, took this photograph. ... Species See text A dandelion is a flower. ... In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ... For other uses, see Life (disambiguation). ... Generation (From the Greek γιγνμαι), also known as procreation, is the act of producing offspring. ... Habitat (which is Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species live and grow. ...

In most cases, organisms (plants and especially sedentary animals) have evolved adaptations for dispersal that take advantage of various forms of kinetic energy occurring naturally in the environment: water flow, wind, falling (response to gravity).

Dispersal of organisms is a critical process for understanding both geographic isolation in evolution and the broad patterns of current geographic distributions.

Dispersal in plants

Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. Consequently, plants have evolved many ways to disperse and spread a population through their seeds or spores (see also vegetative reproduction). Those properties or attributes that promote the movement of the next generation away from the parent plant may involve the fruit more so than the seeds themselves. Divisions Green algae Chlorophyta Charophyta Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Marchantiophyta—liverworts Anthocerotophyta—hornworts Bryophyta—mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) †Rhyniophyta—rhyniophytes †Zosterophyllophyta—zosterophylls Lycopodiophyta—clubmosses †Trimerophytophyta—trimerophytes Pteridophyta—ferns and horsetails Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta—seed ferns Pinophyta—conifers Cycadophyta—cycads Ginkgophyta—ginkgo Gnetophyta—gnetae Magnoliophyta—flowering plants... A ripe red jalapeño cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ... This article is about a biological reproductive structure; for the video game, see Spore (video game). ... Production of new individuals along a leaf margin of the air plant, Kalanchoë pinnata. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ...

Dispersal is a universal biological need, and it is to be expected that most higher plants have solved the problem in one way or another through adaptations involving their fruit or seed. Examine the fruit of any species and it is likely, with perhaps a bit more knowledge about the ecosystem, to at least intelligently speculate on what these adaptations are in that plant. However, realize that particularly where plant-animal interactions are central to the dispersal mechanism, seeing a plant outside of its native ecosystem may not reveal so much about the adaptations present in the fruit and seed. Indeed, in many instances of plants introduced into areas where they are not native, it is the failure of the dispersal mechanism that accounts for the species not becoming established beyond the garden.

Gravity

The effect of gravity on the dispersal of seeds and spores is straightforward. Heavier seeds will tend to drop downward from the parent plant, and not very far by themselves. Spores, being much lighter, are more influenced by physical movements in the environment, especially those of wind and water, and therefore less strictly subject to the simple motion of gravity (see examples below). Gravity may be sufficient agent for plants growing on steep slopes, but upslope movement of a population can be a problem. The naked seeds of gymnosperms are largely dependent upon gravity for dispersal. Most extant conifers are long-lived large shrubs or tall trees, thus taking full advantage of gravitational dispersal and allowing for gradual up slope movement of a population. Dispersal of seeds strictly by gravity should not overlook storm effects: seeds from a deteriorating cone growing high on a tall, narrow tree will get spread widely during a wind storm (see Wind below). Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... This writeup is about biological seeds; for other meanings see Seed (disambiguation). ... The term spore has several different meanings in biology. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Divisions Pinophyta - Conifers Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo Cycadophyta - Cycads Gnetophyta - Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia Gymnosperms (Gymnospermae) are a group of Spermatophyte seed-bearing plants with ovules on the edge or blade of an open sporophyll, the sporophylls usually arranged in cone-like structures. ... Orders & Families Cordaitales † Pinales   Pinaceae - Pine family   Araucariaceae - Araucaria family   Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family   Sciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family   Cupressaceae - Cypress family   Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family   Taxaceae - Yew family Vojnovskyales † Voltziales † The conifers, division Pinophyta, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the Kingdom Plantae. ... The word bush re-directs here; for alternate uses see Bush (disambiguation). ... Mature female European Black Pine cone Male cones of a pine A cone (in formal botanical usage: strobilus, plural strobili) is an organ on plants in the division Pinophyta (conifers) that contains the reproductive structures. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Encasing seeds in a rounded fruit promotes gravity driven movement away from the parent.

Mechanical dispersal

Numerous species have evolved mechanical means to overcome the tendency of a seed to drop close to its parent. Seedpods are often shaped so that the seeds are flung away from the parent plant with considerable force as the seedpod matures

Examples of fruit with mechanical dispersal mechanisms:

• Oxalis corniculata – capsule, as it dries, becomes sensitive to disturbance, ejecting tiny seeds in an explosive discharge.

Dandelion "clock," showing brown achenes and attached pappuses.

Flowers and fruit (capsules) of the ground orchid, Spathoglottis plicata. ... Dandelion File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Dandelion File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

Wind

For non-aquatic, terrestrial plants, the wind is an obvious supplier of energy of movement, and many plant adaptations exist that clearly take advantage of this fact. This type of seed dispersal is not efficient, but very effective. Perhaps most familiar are the feather-light fibre parachutes with attached achenes that are produced by a number of species of Asteraceae, a well-known example being the dandelion (see right). Diversity About 1500 genera and 23,000 species Type Genus Aster L. Subfamilies Barnadesioideae Cichorioideae Tribe Arctotidae Tribe Cardueae Tribe Eremothamneae Tribe Lactuceae Tribe Liabeae Tribe Mutisieae Tribe Tarchonantheae Tribe Vernonieae Asteroideae Tribe Anthemideae Tribe Astereae Tribe Calenduleae Tribe Eupatorieae Tribe Gnaphalieae Tribe Helenieae Tribe Heliantheae Tribe Inuleae Tribe Plucheae... Species See text A dandelion is a flower. ...

Water

Plants that grow in water (aquatic and obligate wetland species) are likely to utilize water to disperse their seeds. For example, all mangroves disperse their offspring by water. Hydrochory is the dispersal of seeds by water; a plant which uses this method in its life cycle is termed a hydrochore. Rhizophora demonstrates an unorthodox method of propagation called vivipary: the embryo is retained on the plant until after germination; in essence, a dry seed is not produced. The hypocotyl of the germinating seedling (now called a propagule) bursts through the fruit and hangs, poised for continued growth. In R. mangle, the hypocotyl can reach a length of 20 to 25 cm; and in R. mucronata lengths up to 1 m have been recorded. Eventually, the seedling separates from the fruit, leaving its cotyledons behind, and—floating horizontally on the water surface—is carried away by tidal or river flow. After a month or two, the propagule turns vertical in the water. Once the hypocotyl of a propagule "feels" bottom or strands, roots start to develop and leaves appear at the upper end (Hogarth, 1999). Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal. ... A ripe red jalapeño cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ... Rhizophoraceae Categories: Stub | Plant families ... It has been suggested that Germination rate be merged into this article or section. ... Hypocotyl is a botanical term for a part of a germinating seedling of a seed plant. ... For the genus of Crassulaceae, see Cotyledon. ...

Adaptations commonly seen in littoral plants are those that promote flotation of the fruit, allowing the seed to be carried away on the tide or ocean currents. Examples would be: A littoral is the region near the shoreline of a body of fresh or salt water. ...

• Cocos nucifera – the coconut produces a large, dry, fiber-filled fruit (a fibrous drupe) capable of a long survival adrift at sea.
• Calophyllum inophyllum – Alexandrian laurel or kamani produces a globose fruit that is almost cork-like.

Binomial name L. For other uses, see Coconut (disambiguation). ... The peach is a typical drupe (stone fruit) In botany, a drupe is a type of fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp or skin and mesocarp or flesh) surrounds a shell (the pit or stone) of hardened endocarp with a seed inside. ...

Animals

A barbed seed caught in the fur of a cat.

Seeds are often the bane of bushwalkers

A significant aspect of plant-animal co-evolution involves plant adaptations that take advantage of animal abilities to locomote. Some fruit have prickly burrs or spikes that attach themselves to a passing animal's fur or feathers so that the animal will carry them away. Some seeds are contained within a soft fruit that "invites" animals to consume it. These seeds have a tough protective outer-coating so that while the fruit is digested, the seeds will pass through their host's digestive tract intact, and grow wherever they fall. Such fruit attractive to birds is perhaps the most successful of fruit adaptations related to plant dispersal. Some seeds are appealing to rodents (such as squirrels) who hoard them in hidden caches, often beneath the surface of the soil, in order to avoid starving during the winter and early spring. Those seeds that are left uneaten have the chance to germinate and grow into a new plant. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 477 pixelsFull resolution (1024 × 610 pixel, file size: 98 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) A barbed seed trapped in the white fur of a cat. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 477 pixelsFull resolution (1024 × 610 pixel, file size: 98 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) A barbed seed trapped in the white fur of a cat. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 534 pixelsFull resolution (1600 × 1067 pixel, file size: 393 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Seeds attached to trouser leg If you are a (commercial) publisher and you want me to write you an email or paper mail giving you an... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 534 pixelsFull resolution (1600 × 1067 pixel, file size: 393 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Seeds attached to trouser leg If you are a (commercial) publisher and you want me to write you an email or paper mail giving you an... Genera Many, see the article Sciuridae. ... Hoarding is the storing of food or other goods. ...

Examples of fruits with attachment hairs and structures:

• Bidens spp. – Many species of this beggartick genus produce achenes with awns that are barbed, Medicago with rolled fruits bearing thorns and spikes, many Apiaceae with spikes or spiky hairs on their fruits like Torilis, Caucalis Daucus etc,

Some animals that disperse may also eat the seed. Species See text Bidens is a genus with about 200 species in the family Asteraceae. ... An achene is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. ... Seed predation includes any process inflicted on a plant’s seeds by an animal that results in the inviability of the seed. ...

Dispersal in animals

Most (but not all) animals are capable of locomotion and the basic mechanism of dispersal is movement from one place to another. Locomotion allows the organism to "test" new environments for their suitability, provided they are within animal's range. Movements are usually guided by inherited behaviors. “Animalia” redirects here. ... In a general sense, locomotion simply means active movement or travel, applying not just to biological individuals. ... For the Pet Shop Boys album of the same name see Behaviour Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. ...

Non-motile animals

There are numerous animal forms that are non-motile, such as sponges, bryozoans, tunicates, sea anemones, corals, and oysters. In common, they are all either marine or aquatic. It may seem curious that plants have been so successful at stationary life on land, while animals have not, but the answer lies in the food supply. Plants produce their own food from sunlight and carbon dioxide—both generally more abundant on land than in water. Animals fixed in place must rely on the surrounding medium to bring food at least close enough to grab, and this occurs in the three-dimensional water environment, but with much less abundance in the atmosphere. However, that such a life form might be possible is at least suggested by the orb-weaver spiders. Classes Calcarea Hexactinellida Demospongiae The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus pore and ferre to bear) are animals of the phylum Porifera. ... Fossilized Bryozoa, Ordovician limestone, Batavia, Ohio Bryozoans (moss animals) are tiny colonial animals that generally build stony skeletons of calcium carbonate, superficially similar to coral. ... Classes Ascidiacea Thaliacea Appendicularia Sorberacea Urochordata (sometimes known as tunicata and commonly called urochordates, tunicates, sea squirts or cunji) is the subphylum of saclike filter feeders with incurrent and excurrent siphons. ... Families Many, see text. ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... Crassostrea gigas, Marennes-Oléron Crassostrea gigas, Marennes-Oléron Crassostrea gigas, Marennes-Oléron, opened The name oyster is used for a number of different groups of mollusks which grow for the most part in marine or brackish water. ... Animated map exhibiting the worlds oceanic waters. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms, and is in a gaseous state in the atmosphere of the Earth. ... Diversity 166 genera, 2840 species Genera Aculepeira Araneus Araniella Argiope (St Andrews Cross spider) Austracantha Bertrana Celaenia Cladomelea Cyclosa Cyrtophora Dicrostichus Eriophora Gasteracantha (Spiny orb-weavers) Kaira Larinia Larinioides Lewisepeira Mangora Mastophora Metepiera Micrathena Neoscona Nuctenea Ordgarius Perilla Zygiella many others Araneida redirects here. ...

All of the marine and aquatic invertebrates whose lives are spent fixed to the bottom (more or less; anemones are capable of getting up and moving to a new location if conditions warrant) produce dispersal units. These may be specialized "buds", or motile sexual reproduction products, or even a sort of alteration of generations as in certain cnidaria. Invertebrate is a term that describes any animal without a spinal column. ... Classes Anthozoa — corals and sea anemones Scyphozoa — jellyfish Staurozoa — stalked jellyfish Cubozoa — sea wasps or box jellyfish Polypodiozoa Hydrozoa — hydroids, hydra-like animals Trilobozoa — extincts Cnidaria[1] (IPA: [2]) is a phylum containing some 11,000 species of relatively simple animals found exclusively in aquatic, mostly marine, environments. ...

Corals provide a good example of how sedentary species achieve dispersion. Corals reproduce by releasing sperm and eggs directly into the water. These release events are coordinated by lunar phase in certain warm months, such that all corals of one or many species on a given reef will release on the same single or several consecutive nights. The released eggs are fertilized, and the resulting zygote develops quickly into a multicellular planula. This motile stage then attempts to find a suitable substratum for settlement. Most are unsuccessful and die or are fed upon by zooplankton and bottom dwelling predators such as anemones and other corals. However, untold millions are produced, and a few do succeed in locating spots of bare limestone, where they settle and transform by growth into a polyp. All things being favorable, the single polyp grows into a coral head by budding off new polyps to form a colony. It has been suggested that Biparental zygote be merged into this article or section. ... A planula is the free-swimming, flattened, ciliated, bilaterally symmetrical larva of a hydrozoan cnidarian. ...

Motile animals

Although motile animals can, in theory, disperse themselves by their locomotive powers, a great many species utilize the existing kinetic energies in the environment. Dispersal by water currents is especially associated with the physically small inhabitants of marine waters known as zooplankton. The term plankton comes from the Greek, πλαγκτον, meaning "wanderer" or "drifter". Photomontage of plankton organisms Plankton are any drifting organism that inhabits the water column of oceans, seas, and bodies of fresh water. ...

External links

• Fruit and seed dispersal images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu

Reference

• Hogarth, Peter J. 1999. The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford Univ. Press. 228 p. ISBN 0-19-850222-2